Female entrepreneurs dealt a huge blow to the patriarchal system because they had both the knowledge and the power to handle their money. Most husbands would not think of yielding their financial reigns to their wives, so it’s not surprising that most career women were also single women. In fact, in early 18th century London, single women were responsible for about 10% of London business (25). Legally, a married woman could be involved in trade if it was separate from that of her husband’s, otherwise, if she involved herself in the same trade, “she doth it as a Servant” according to London law (26). Rebel likes to think this law implied men knew, and feared, women’s capacity to entrepreneurs, and made the law to avoid competition.

While entrepeneuring men who succeeded in business endeavors were rewarded with raised social status, women were subject to ridicule and shame. Women entrepreneurs were “too obviously visible, talkative, and competent…they were knowledgeable about prices and market conditions and they knew how to bargain” says one historian (27). Verbal prowess in dealing with clients is necessary for business. While for men this was considered an accomplishment, it was made fun of in women. Women were already considered gossipy, bossy, and noisy, frequently being compared with poultry’s incessant squawking in popular sayings such as:

“where many geese be, be many turds and where be women, many words” (28)

Daughter, for those that has been brought up to a trade,
When they are marry’d, what use can be made
Of that imploy, when as they have a Family,
To guide and govern as it ought to be?

The Good Wife’s Fore-cast (29)

“Tis' evident that men can be their own advisors, and their own directors, and know how to work themselves out of difficulties and into business better than women.”

Defoe, Moll Flanders, 1722

YES

“Of Mrs. Calson…Her merit and ability in conducting capital business…was deserving of all praise…In quickness of understanding, and activity of execution”

Timperleys Dictionary of Printers and Printing (30)

YES

“She received the orders; made the purchases…superintended the making of the goods; made out the accounts; and received the money…there were no “Rights of Women” thought of in her day, but she was an entirely self-acting, managing mistress”

A son describing his mother’s button-making business (31)

The avoidance of professional recognition of women is also evident in how women were referred to in public. Even though women were active in capital business, society refused to see them as independent from the household “duty” of bringing home the bacon for the husband. This patriarchically imposed link to the household is evident in how women were addressed publicly. Today it is common for people to introduce themselves by their profession and for men, this was the same 300 years ago in England. Women, however, were always referred to by their marital status even if they had a profession; wife, widow, singlewoman etc. To be of a high social status in the professional and public spheres was to be referred to not by marital status. For example, women such as Hester Pinney featured in our Who’s Who of Female Entrepreneurs were referred to as “dames.” (32)

With the rise of the middle class and their leisure time, the 18th century saw the rise of printing and publishing houses. This was one sector where women entrepreneurs can be found in substantial numbers. For example, from 1700 to 1840, 59 women headed print businesses in the towns of Northumberland and Durham (33). Half of the women who ran a printing business in 18th century England did so because they acquired it through inheritance either from a deceased husband or a father. Rebel still thinks these women were rebellious because they always had the option of selling the business or allowing a man to manage the funds, but many widows and daughters decided they were up to the challenge! The other half of the women who owned printing businesses actively rebelled against society by choosing to go into business.

WHERE THE WORD SPINSTER COMES FROM...

Today we use the word “spinster” to refer to an older, unwed, woman…and not a particularly jovial one. The origins of this pejorative word show how negatively 18th century society viewed career women. Textile production was one of the first industries specialized and pulled from the family economy in the late 18th century. Before the organization of the textile industry, “spinster” simply referred to any woman who spun, married or single, young or old.

The move from a family economy towards industrialization took away what was for some married women, a way to earn money (they could sell their textiles). Thus, women who still involved themselves in the trade of textiles were doing it to earn money; doing it because they wanted to, not out of necessity to the family. This offended the patriarchy, so it was assumed any woman still a working “spinster” was unmarried, or did not want to be married. And soon “spinster” referred to any woman who simply did not marry, regardless of whether they worked or not (34).

WHO'S WHO IN FEMALE ENTREPENEURS

Katherine Chidley: was a major suppler of textiles to Cromwell’s army (35)

Roxanna: She was an economically capable woman, who makes and handles her own money, although many people labeled her a prostitute. As historian Mona Scheuermann points out,
“clearly the options to women for earning initial capital (were) severely limited” so we think Roxanna made the best of an oppressive situation (36)

Hester Pinney: Hester never married in lived in London as a lace trader, creditor, and financial dealer in the first half of the 18th century. (37)

Mary Say: Mary inherited a large printing business that handled the widely distributed newspaper Gazetteer when her husband died, and chose to take over his position as owner and manager which she successfully did for 25 years. Even though she remarried, she remained in control of the business. She was known as a tough businesswoman, and when the Gazetteer wanted to sap her power, she responded by taking over the Gazetteer as well! (38)