COMMUNITY IN CONSERVATION

AFRICA

MARINE FISHERIES MOUNTAIN PASTORAL PROTECTED AREAS

MARINE FISHERIES

Derman, B and A Ferguson (1995). “Human rights, environment and development: the dispossession of fishing communities on Lake Malawi.” Human Ecology 23(2): 125-142.

In a growing number of cases throughout Africa, communities' resource bases are being undermined ol appropriated by outsiders a process which seriously threatens the continuation of local cultures and livelihoods. In this article, we use a political ecology framework to examine how the linked processes of economic development, political power, and environmental change are transgressing the rights of fishing communities on the shores of Lake Malawi. In the cases described, these communities, or community members within them, find themselves powerless to prevent the expropriation of the resources over which they previously had either legal or customary control. Thus, it is not the economic processes of dispossession alone which lead to human rights violations but rather dispossession combined with an authoritarian political context. (Journal)

Gilmore, KS (1979). “An investigation into the decline of the Yambezi fishermen's co-operative society.” Botswana Notes and Records 11: 97-102.

McClanahan, T, H Glaesel, et al. (1997). “The effects of traditional fisheries management on fisheries yields and the coral-reef ecosystems of southern Kenya.” Environmental Conservation 24(2): 105-120.

Thomas, DHL (1996). “Fisheries tenure in an African floodplain village and the implications for management.” Human Ecology 24(3): 287-313.

Flood plain fisheries make an important contribution to the total freshwater catch of Africa. Rules and institutions controling access to these fisheries have received little attention in the literature. This paper explores property regimes operating in the Hadejia-Jama' are floodplain fishery, Nigeria, with a focus on a case-study village. Private, communal property, and open-access tenure regimes exist. The physical characteristics of the resources under each of these categories are differentiated. The economic cost of making resources more exclusive appears to be a key factor affecting tenure. However the social benefits of communal access are also extremely important. In a risky environment that is characterized by spatial and temporal variation in the distribution of resources, maintaining rights of access to a wide geographical portfolio of resources is an important consideration. This is especially true considering recent environmental changes in the flood plain caused by dams and drought. This suggests that recommendations to improve productivity of the fishery by making access more exclusive may not maximize overall benefits from the fishery since gains in productivity may be outweighed by losses in social benefits. (Journal)

MOUNTAIN:

Baumann, G (1984). “Development as a historical process: a social and cultural history of development in a Nuba Mountains community.” Anthropos 79(4-6): 459-471.

Ezaza, WP (1992). “Assessment of socioecological impacts on East African mountain and highland environments: a case study from Tanzania.” Mountain Research and Development 12(4): 401-408.

Ford, R (1990). “Dynamics of human-environment interactions in the tropical montane agrosystems of Rwanda: Implications for economic development and environmental stability.” Mountain Research and Development 10(1): 43-63.

Hough, J and M Sherpa (1989). “Bottom up Vs basic needs - Integrating conservation and development in the Annapurna and Michiru Mountain conservation areas of Nepal and Malawi.” Ambio 18(8): 434- 441.

PASTORAL:

Arhem, K (1984). “Two sides of development: Maasai pastoralism and wildlife conservation in Ngorongoro, Tanzania.” Ethnos 49(3-4): 186-210.

Baumann, G (1984). “Development as a historical process: a social and cultural history of development in a Nuba Mountains community.” Anthropos 79(4-6): 459-471.

Behnke, R, I Scoones, et al., Eds. (1993). Range Ecology at Disequilibrium: New Models of Natural Variability and Pastoral Adaptation in African Savannas. London, ODI, IIED, and Commonwealth Secretariat.

Brown, M and K O'Connor (1993). Non-Governmental Organizations and Natural Resources Management in Africa's Pastoral Sector : Where to Go from Here? - A Synthesis Document. PVO-NGO/NRMS Project. Washington, USAID.

Curry, J (1996). “Gender and livestock in African production systems: an introduction.” Human Ecology 24(2): 149-160.

Since the 1970s, the study of gender relations and labor and resource use in different production systems has become an important subject ofinquiry. While there has been recent interest in gender and livestock issues in pastoral societies, most of the work on gender and agriculture to date has focused primarily upon the role of women in crop production, to the virtual exclusion of the contributions women, children, and the elderly make to the livestock component of the farming system. The topic of gender (broadly defined to include age and sex criteria) and livestock management was addressed at a session at the 1992 Annual Meetings of the American Anthropological Association entitled, ''Gender and Livestock in African production Systems,'' the contributions to which form the basis of the present volume. Topics presented in the papers include: a conceptual framework for investigation of gender and livestock production and disease control, responsibility for productive tasks, livestock ownership and rights to livestock products, and impacts of and responses to change. Nearly all papers in the volume argue explicitly or implicitly for the need to include gender considerations in the planning of livestock development programs, thereby rendering the collection of interest to both scientists and policymakers. (SSCI)

Curry, J, R HussAshmore, et al. (1996). “A framework for the analysis of gender, intra-household dynamics, and livestock disease control with examples from Uasin Gishu district, Kenya.” Human Ecology 24(2): 161-189.

As livestock disease control programs in Africa begin to rely more upon para-professionals and livestock producers as deliverers of animal health care services, understanding the role different household members play in providing animal health care becomes increasingly important. This paper presents a framework for the analysis of gender aspects of livestock disease control based on a similar framework developed by Feldstein and Poats (1989). The utility of this framework is illustrated using household-level data collected from a district in central Kenya. Adult women and elderly men in the sample have primary responsibility for livestock care, and are therefore well placed to diagnose illness. Dipping and spraying of animals to prevent tick-borne and other diseases is the primary responsibility of adult males. Decisions regarding use of milk from the morning milking pre more likely to be made by adult men. It is morning milk that is most often sold. Adult women, however, make decisions about use of evening milk, which is most often kept for household consumption. Knowledge of livestock diseases did not appear to vary significantly by gender, although some elderly men did possess extensive knowledge of indigenous disease categories and traditional remedies. The importance of recognizing gender issues in planning and implementing livestock disease control programs is discussed. (Journal)

Darkoh, M (1993). “Towards sustainable development and environmental conservation in African drylands.” Journal of Eastern African Research and Development 23: 1-23.

Ellis, J and D Swift (1988). “Stability of African pastoral ecosystems: alternative paradigms and implications for development.” Journal of Range Management 41: 450-459.

Heasley, L and J Delehanty (1996). “The politics of manure: resource tenure and the agropastoral economy in Southwestern Niger.” Society and Natural Resources 9(1): 31-46.

Disputes over manure in Southwestern Niger reveal broad strategies for natural resource control employed by farmers and herders in a transitional agropastoral economy, where resources are scarce, some traditional ethnic specializations are breaking down, and the dominant national political motif is devolution. Four themes emerge: (1) In agropastoral systems, manure offers entry to the general regional political ecology because it links the livestock and agricultural sides of the economy as well as the economy and the resource base. (2) Where groups vie for a limited resource, all take strategic advantage of legitimizing claims, whether grounded in history, customary roles, debts owed, contracts drawn, officials known, old law, new law, or law deemed likely in the future. (3) Conflicts between claimants are heightened where the state seeks to empower customary authorities but cannot define them. (4) Devolving control over natural resources might best begin not by assigning power but by defining lines of conflict and the legitimizing logic behind conflicting claims. (Journal)

Hitchcock, R (1995). “Centralization, resource depletion, and coercive conservation among the Tyua of the Northeastern Kalahari.” Human Ecology 23(2): 169-198.

The colonial and post-colonial governments of Botswana and Zimbabwe pursued policies toward their indigenous minority populations which included the establishment of settlement schemes, removals of people from national parks; and game reserves, and the imposition of restrictions on hunting by local people. These polices had the effect of dispossessing indigenous groups and reducing their access to resources crucial to their adaptive success. The impacts of these polices are examined using data on Tyua Bushmen in the Nata liver region of northern Botswana and western Zimbabwe. It demonstrates that the kinds of conservation and development programs employed resulted in greater resource depletion, increased poverty, and social stratification. There is evidence that resource conservation programs can sometimes do more harm than good. (Journal)

Hogg, R (1992). “NGOs, pastoralists and the myth of community: three case studies of pastoral development from East Africa.” Nomadic Peoples 30: 122-146.

Horowitz, MH and F Jowker (1992). “ Pastoral women and change in Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia.” Institute for Development Anthropology Working Paper #91. Binghamton, New York.

Kasusya, P (1998). “Combating desertification in northern Kenya (Samburu) through community action - a community case experience.” Journal of Arid Environments 39(2): 325-329.

The Samburu District is situated in the arid and semi-arid area of the Rift Valley Province of Kenya. The Lorroki Plateau in central Samburu acts as an important water catchment for the surrounding arid areas and serves as an area for dry season grazing for the Samburu people, who are pastoralists living in group ranches and whose trees and forests are managed as a communal resource providing grazing, firewood, building poles and medicines. Strong group rules enforced by appointed elders have traditionally been essential to the conservation and wise use of communal tree and forest resources. But these rules have been undermined by changes in resource management, forest use patterns, increasing population, overgrazing, displacements, droughts, cattle rustling and high urban demand for wood energy and building materials. These changes have led to desert conditions. For the past 2 years I have worked among the communities in interventions to combat desertification and have held seminars to sensitize communities and extension staff. Participatory rural appraisal methods and action plans have been drawn up to address range rehabilitation within denuded community lands. The people have formed rural conservation committees with defined responsibilities, and women are taking an active role in harvesting and marketing non-woody products like honey to earn income. (C)1998 Academic Press Limited.

Lane, C and J Swift (1989). East African pastoralism: common land, common problems. Drylands Programme Issues Paper #8, London, International Institute for Environment and Development.

McCabe, J (1990). “Turkana pastoralism: a case against the tragedy of the commons.” Human Ecology 18(1): 81-103.

McCabe, T (1992). “Can conservation and development be coupled among pastoral people? An examination of the Maasai of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania.” Human Organization 51(4): 353-366.

Moganane, BO and KP Walker (1995). The role of local knowledge in the management of natural resources with emphasis on woodland, veld products and wildlife: Botswana case study, 1995: final report.

Botswana, IUCN The World Conservation Union. Methods and findings of a study of traditional conservation practices used by indigenous Kedia and Kang communities for sustainably harvesting wildlife and other natural resources. Based on discussions at community meetings and interviews with tribal elders.

Neumann, RP (1995). “Local challenges to global agendas: Conservation, economic liberalization and the pastoralists' rights movement in Tanzania.” Antipode 27(4): 363-382.

Since the mid-1980s, ''democratization'' and structural adjustment, have been transforming domestic political economies throughout sub-Saharan Africa. In Tanzania, these processes could significantly alter the terrain in the conflict between local land rights and state wildlife conservation. The situation has become increasingly complex as the parties involved - land-holders, state and international conservation agencies - are joined by land rights political organizations, domestic conservation groups and foreign capital. The paper focuses on struggles over land and resource rights, specifically on new forms of grassroots political action which has emerged on the question of wildlife conservation in national parks. At the same time, tourism is expanding with an influx of foreign capital. The paper explores the implications of the interactions between these forces. (SSCI)

Newby, JE and JF Grettenberger (1986). “The human dimension in natural resources conservation: a Sahelian example from Niger.” Environmental Conservation 13(3): 249-256.

Niamir, M (1990). “Herders decision making in natural resource management in arid and semi-arid Africa.” Community Forestry Note 4, FAO, Rome.

Oba, G (1985). “Perception of environment among Kenyan pastoralists: implications for development.” Nomadic Peoples 19: 33-57.

Peters, P (1992). “Manoeuvres and debates in the interpretation of land rights in Botswana.” Africa 62(3): 413-434.

Peters, P (1994). Dividing the Commons: Politics, Policy and Culture in Botswana. Charlottesville, University of Virginia Press.

Prins, H (1992). “The pastoral road to extinction: competition between wildlife and traditional pastoralism in East Africa.” Environmental Conservation 19(2): 117-123.

Shepherd, G (1992). The realities of the commons: answering Hardin from Somalia. in Forest Policies, Forest Politics. G Shepherd, Ed. London, Overseas Development Institute.

Young, MD and OT Solbrig (1992). Savanna management for ecological sustainability, economic profit and social equity. MAB Digest 13, UNESCO, Paris.

Young, MD and OT Solbrig (1993). The world's savannas: economic driving forces, ecological constraints and policy options for sustainable land use. Paris, UNESCO.

PROTECTED AREA:

Asieby, E and J Owusu (1982). “The case for high-forest national-parks in Ghana.” Environmental Conservation 9(4): 293- 304.

Barnard, P, CJ Brown, et al. (1998). “Extending the Namibian protected area network to safeguard hotspots of endemism and diversity.” Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 531.

Bloch, P (1993). Buffer Zones, Buffering Strategies, Resource Tenure, and Human-Natural Resource Interaction in the Peripheral Zones of Protected Areas in Sub-Saharan Africa. Madison, WI, Land Tenure Center.

Burnett, G and R Conover (1989). “The efficacy of Africa's national parks: an evaluation of Julius Nyerere's Arusha Manifesto of 1961.” Society and Natural Resources 2: 251-260.

Burnett, GW and LMB Harrington (1994). “Early national park adoption in sub-Saharan Africa.” Society and Natural Resources 7(2): 155-168.

It is widely supposed that national parks were invented with Yellowstone National Park in 1872, from whence they have diffused around the world. Adoption of parks within Africa can be better understood and traced by considering the original motivations regarding reserve establishment, Historical patterns of national park and reserve adoption in Africa's biogeographic regions are analyzed. Results suggest that parks were adopted early in southern Africa; the phenomenon then spread rapidly through much of sub-Saharan Africa, and has more recently and slowly been applied to Africa's less accessible or economically desirable arid and mountainous regions. The earliest preservation activities were oriented toward watershed protection and erosion control in fynbos areas. The game reserve orientation of some parks originated later. (Journal)

Carruthers, J (1989). “Creating a national park, 1910 to 1926.” Journal of Southern African Studies 5: 188-216.

Carruthers, J (1994). “Dissecting the myth - Kruger Paul and the Kruger Paul National Park.” Journal of Southern African Studies 20(2): 263-283.

South Africans generally assume that the Kruger National Park was called after Paul Kruger, the president of the Transvaal Republic, in order to commemorate his personal interest in nature conservation, and in particular his struggle against considerable opposition to found the national park which now bears his name. This version of conservation history is officially accepted by the National Parks Board and presented also in the available popular literature. In this paper the accuracy of this link between Paul Kruger and the Kruger National Park is examined closely and found to be entirely inaccurate. An analysis of contemporary sources demonstrates that Kruger lagged behind public opinion (both in the Transvaal and internationally) on wildlife conservation and had to be forced into establishing the Sabi Game Reserve. The argument is presented that the connection between the Kruger and national parks has been deliberately fomented to serve Afrikaner Nationalist political purposes. Chief among these have been the advancement of republican and apartheid ideology, the denigration of Britain, a need for international respectability and the promotion of Afrikaner scientists. It is contended that constructing the myth of Paul Kruger to create an Afrikaner culture in the Kruger National Park has positioned the park firmly with the white, Afrikaner Nationalist arena. This has important implications for the future of national parks in the changing political circumstances of South Africa. (Author)

Child, G and R Heath (1990). “Underselling national parks in Zimbabwe: the implications for rural sustainability.” Society and Natural Resources 3: 215-227.

Duffy, R (1997). “ The environmental challenge to the nation-state: superparks and the national parks policy in Zimbabwe.” Journal of Southern African Studies 23(3): 441- 451.

The transnational nature of environmental problems has highlighted the need for cooperation between nation-states. In southern Africa the field of wildlife conservation has already witnessed a growth in multinational conservation schemes. The Trans Border Conservation Area or 'superpark' which incorporates parts of Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa is a good example. While the ecological and economic basis of the superpark has been agreed, political factors have slowed its implementation. This article explores the political context of the superpark proposal within Zimbabwe, and analyses why the Zimbabwean stare has proved to be less enthusiastic than its partners. In particular, it examines the internal disagreements in the ruling party and in the Parks Department which have proved to be significant stumbling blocks for wildlife conservation. The troubled history of the area covered by the superpark is investigated, including the impact of military forces from the three partner states and poaching operations in the 1980s. All of these factors have impacted on the Zimbabwean state's willingness to cede control to a transnational park authority. (Source)

Durbin, J and J Ralambo (1994). “The role of local people in successful maintenance of protected areas in Madagascar.” Environmental Conservation 21(2): 115-120.

Fortmann, L (1985). “The tree tenure factor in agroforestry with particular reference to Africa.” Agroforestry Systems 2: 229-251.

Fortmann, L (1986). The role of local institutions in communal area development in Botswana. Land Tenure Center Research Paper #91, Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Fortmann, L (1990). “Locality and custom: non-aboriginal claims to customary usufructory rights as a source of rural protest.” Journal of Rural Studies 6(2): 195-208.

Fortmann, L (1995). “Talking claims: discursive strategies in contesting property.” World Development 23(6): 1053-1063.

This article examines discursive strategies in the struggle over property rights in rural Zimbabwe. Stories told by villagers and the owners or former owners of nearby large commercial farms are analyzed in terms of their framing of the issue, the voice of the teller, time frame and audience. Villagers' stories are shown to legitimize present claims in terms of past recognition of their access rights. Farmers' stories are shown to attempt to shift part of the legitimacy of their property claims onto grounds of ecological stewardship. (SSCI)

Fortmann, L and J Bruce (1993). Tenure and gender issues in forest policy. in Living with trees: Policies for forestry management in Zimbabwe, World Bank Technical Paper #210. PN Bradley and K McNamara, Ed. Washington, World Bank.

Fortmann, L and C Nhira (1992). Local management of trees and woodland resources in Zimbabwe: A tenurial niche. OFI Occasional Papers #43, Oxford, Oxford Forestry Institute.

Freudenberger, KS (1995). Tree and land tenure: using rapid appraisal to study natural resource management. A case study from Anivorano, Madagascar. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Freudenberger, M, J Carney, et al. (1997). “Resiliency and change in common property regimes in West Africa: the case of the tongo in the Gambia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone.” Society and Natural Resources 10(4): 383- 402.

West African rural communities frequently create rules and conventions to define rights of access and conditions of use to natural resources of great use and exchange value. One such example, the tongo, is all oscillating common property regime that regulates seasonal access to vegetation and wildlife located within village commons and an individually appropriated lands in many areas of The Gambia, Guinea, and Sierra Leone. This ensures that a particular resource, such as fruits from domesticated and wild trees or grasses used for thatch, reach full maturity before being harvested by the community at large. While it often is concluded that these institutional arrangements are declining, this article adopts a historical perspective in showing that these regimes are much more resilient and flexible than commonly assumed. The authors suggest that the tongo is a foundation for working with African indigenous knowledge and institutions to develop an alternative, yet distinctly African, approach to resource conservation. (Source)

Gezon, L (1997). “Institutional structure and the effectiveness of integrated conservation and development projects: case study from Madagascar.” Human Organization 56(4): 462-470.

Ghimire, KB (1994). “Parks and people: Livelihood issues in national parks management in Thailand and Madagascar.” Development and Change 25: 195-229.

In many countries, the transformation by the state of increasing areas of land and aquatic resources into strictly protected areas has included a total restriction on the use of park resources by the local people, causing poverty and social conflict, and in some cases further environmental deterioration. This essay examines the forms of management in national parks in developing countries in general, and in Thailand and Madagascar in particular (SSCI)

Hannah, L (1992). African People, African Parks: An Evaluation of Development Initiatives as a Means of Improving Protected Area Conservation in Africa. Washington, Conservation International.

Hess, K (1997). “Wild success: saving elephants, crocodiles, and other endangered wildlife once meant trampled crops and violent death to the villagers of southern Africa.” Reason 29: 32-41.

Examines community-based efforts to market wildlife products in a sustainable manner; focus on the CAMPFIRE program of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife, Zimbabwe. (Journal)

Hill, CM (1998). “Conflicting attitudes towards elephants around the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda.” Environmental Conservation 25(3): 244-250.

Attitudes of local people to wildlife, and particularly to large animals, are an increasingly important element of conservation work, but attitudes may vary within a community according to gender, and prior experience of wildlife. Data mere collected by questionnaire and informal interviews with 59 men and 57 women living on the southern edge of the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda, to assess the influence of these factors in attitudes towards elephants, in an area from which they are now absent, and to conservation in general. It was hypothesized that prior experience of elephants might influence people's perceptions of them, and that this in turn might influence their attitudes towards the issue of elephant conservation. The results of this study did not generally support this. There was no evidence that people with prior experience of elephants were any more likely to support their conservation than were people who did not have prior experience of them. Within this community men and women expressed very different views as to the behaviour of elephants. Women were more likely than men to report that elephants were dangerous, irrespective of whether they had seen an elephant or not. Locally, conservation was considered to be particularly important and beneficial as a strategy because it 'should help ensure protection of people and their crops from marauding elephants and other animals'. Attitudes to, and expectations of, conservation as a strategy also varied between members of this community with respect to gender, but age and ethnic group were not good predictors of whether people were likely to be supportive of conservation issues or not. (Author)

Hill, KA (1996). “Zimbabwe's wildlife utilization programs: grassroots democracy or an extension of state power?” African Studies Review 39(1): 103-121.

Hobbs, JJ (1996). “Speaking with people in Egypt's St. Katherine National Park.” The Geographical Review 86: 1-21.

Four bedouin tribes have traditional territories in the 4,500 square kilometer area of Egypt's southern Sinai Peninsula that is designated to become the St. Katherine National Park. Discussions with members of the four tribes revealed what benefits they hope to derive from the park and what contributions they intend to make to it. Bedouin views of the future of wildlife, tourism, and narcotics production are often compatible with those of park planners. International experience in protected area management suggests that dialogue with local people may help create successful long term means of reconciling human needs with environmental conservation. Specific measures for the St. Katherine park are proposed. (Source)

Hough, J and M Sherpa (1989). “Bottom up Vs basic needs - integrating conservation and development in the Annapurna and Michiru Mountain conservation areas of Nepal and Malawi.” Ambio 18(8): 434- 441.

Hough, JL (1994). “Institutional constraints to the integration of conservation and development - a case-study from Madagascar.” Society and Natural Resources 7(2): 119-124.

Institutional constraints to the integration of conservation and development are discussed for the Amber Mountain Integrated Conservation and Development Project in northern Madagascar. Institutional experience, expertise, dependence on donor support, institutional agendas, competition for scarce resources, and institutional cultures, all contributed to an emphasis on conservation and a limited approach to development. Encouraging partnership between conservation and development institutions, both within nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and within government, is suggested as a strategy for overcoming these constraints. Structural changes to encourage collaboration are required, resources must be committed, and indicators of cooperative behavior must be established. (Journal)

Howard, P, T Davenport, et al. (1997). “Planning conservation areas in Uganda's natural forests.” Oryx 31(4): 253-264.

Ilahaine, H (1995). Common property, ethnicity, and social exploitation in the Ziz valley, southeast Morocco. Paper presented at the IASCP conference.

Infield, M (1988). “Attitudes of a rural community towards conservation and a local conservation area in Natal, South Africa.” Biological Conservation 45: 21-46.

Ite, U (1996). “Community perceptions of the Cross River National Park, Nigeria.” Environmental Conservation 23(4): 351-357.

National Parks have become the most widely-used category of protected areas in developing countries, including sub-Saharan Africa. Several studies have shown that local community support for National Parks is based mainly on perceptions of benefits and costs against the background of social, cultural, political and economic considerations. This paper examines the experience in the Cross River National Park (CRNP) in southeast Nigeria using data collected through rapid rural appraisal techniques, household questionnaire surveys, focus group discussions and guided interviews. The results show that in spite of a high level of community awareness of the need to conserve the forests of the study area, there is a low level of local support for the CRNP forest conservation initiative. Four main factors are identified as the main influences on the support extended to the project, namely: reality and expectations of socio-economic development, the pace of project implementation, the relationship between park staff and communities, and the historical rights of local people to the forest of the study area. The implications of the findings relate to the long-term sustainability of the CRNP as a protected forest area. (Source)

Ite, U (1997). “Small farmers and forest loss in Cross River National Park, Nigeria.” The Geographic Journal 163(1): 47-56.

The loss of tropical moist forest (TMF) is recognized as a major environmental problem globally and particularly in the West Africa subregion. The causes of TMF loss vary across the globe and regionally-specific processes of loss exist. The role of some causes of forest loss (e.g. cattle ranching or logging) have been widely studied, and are relatively clearly understood. However, the specific contribution of other causes, particularly the role of smallholder forest farmers, is less well known and has been a subject of controversy and confusion. This paper explores the contextual causes (at the household level) of TMF loss around the Cross River National Park in south-east Nigeria. Local agricultural practices and household decision-making are linked to the wider political economy to explain the observed patterns of forest loss in the study area. By focusing on the household and the dynamics of forest farming at a household level, this paper reinforces the need for an alternative perspective on the role of small farmers in TMF loss in West Africa to that revealed by existing extensive studies of the region. (Author)

Kenya Wildlife Service (1990). Community Conservation and Wildlife Management outside Parks and Reserves: Policy Framework and Development Programme 1991-1996. Nairobi, KWS.

Kepe, T (1997). “Communities, entitlements and nature reserves - the case of the wild coast, South Africa.” IDS Bulletin-Institute of Development Studies 28(4): 47.

'Community-based sustainable development' has become central to the development rhetoric of the new South Africa, whereby local communities are expected to be involved in decisions from which they were previously excluded. But how do such processes work in practice, especially where conflicts over resource use are much in evidence! Through a case study of the Mkambati area of the Wild Coast in the Eastern Cape, this article explores how the interaction of social and ecological dynamics affects the livelihoods of the rural poor who live near protected conservation areas. Through the use of an environmental entitlements analysis, the case study shows how different social actors derive livelihoods from a range of natural resources and how access to and control over these resources is mediated by a set of interacting and overlapping institutions which are embedded in the political and social life of the area. An understanding of this complex set of institutional relationships is seen to be a vital precursor to establishing a framework for negotiation around competing claims, and the exploration of any co-management options for the nature reserve area. (SSCI)

Kramer, RA and V Ballabh (1992). Management of common-pool forest resources. in Sustainable Agricultural Development: The Role of International Cooperation. Proceedings of the 21st International Conference of Agricultural Economists. GH Peters, Ed. Oxford, Oxford University Press: 435-446.

Lastarria-Cornhiel, S (1997). “Impact of privatization on gender and property rights in Africa.” World Development 25(8): 1317-1333.

This paper explores the transformation of customary tenure systems and their impact on women's rights to land in Africa. Emphasis is placed on the diversity of land rights within customary tenure systems, the different institutions and structures (e.g., inheritance, marriage) that influence rights to land, and the trend toward uniformity and increasing patrilineal control. With privatization, different rights to land have become concentrated in the hands of those persons (such as community leaders, male household heads) who are able to successfully claim their ownership right to land, while other persons (such as poor rural women, ethnic minorities) lose the few rights they had and generally are not able to participate fully in the land market. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Leader-Williams, N and EJ Miller-Gulland (1993). “Policies for the enforcement of wildlife laws; the balance between detection and penalties in Luangwa Valley, Zambia.” Conservation Biology 7(3): 611-617.

Lewis, D, G Kaweche, et al. (1990). “Wildlife conservation outside protected areas-lessons from an experiment in Zambia.” Conservation Biology 4(2): 171-180.

Lowry, A and T Donahue (1994). “Parks, politics and pluralism: the demise of national parks in Togo.” Society and Natural Resources 7: 321-329.

Lyon, L (1997). “Biodiversity conservation - At what cost? A study of households in the vicinity of Madagascar's Mantadia National Park.” Ambio 26(8): 555-555.

Makuku, S (1993). “Community approaches to common property resources management: the case of the Norumedzo community in Bikita, Zimbabwe.” Forest Trees and People Newsletter 22: 18-24.

Matawanyika, JZZ, R Serafin, et al. (1991). Protected Areas and Local Peoples in Africa: Review Essay and Annotated Bibliography. Waterloo Canada, WWF.

McGranahan, G (1991). “Fuelwood, subsistence foraging, and the decline of common property.” World Development 19(10): 1275-1287.

Ideally, common property can adapt to particularities in the social and physical environment to create environmentally sustainable regimes. In practice, common fuelwood foraging has been subject to numerous problems intimately linked to the historically changing role of common property. Schematic histories of fuelwood and forests in Europe and Java illustrate how common property systems have been undermined, and the different implications their dissolution can have. Both cases indicate that fuelwood problems may be best interpreted within the rubric of subsistence foraging and the decline of common property, rather than that of energy shortage and tree mismanagement. (Journal)

McShane, T (1990). “Wildlands and human-needs - resource use in an African protected area.” Landscape and Urban Planning 19(2): 145-158.

Metcalfe, SC (1995). Communities, parks, and regional planning: A co-management strategy based on the Zimbabwean Experience. in Expanding Partnerships in Conservation. JA McNeely, Ed. Washington DC, Island Press.

Myers, N (1972). “National parks in savanna Africa.” Science 178: 1255-1263.

Neef, A and F Heidhues (1994). “The role of land tenure in agroforestry: lessons from Benin.” Agroforestry Systems 27: 145-161.

Neumann, R (1996). “ Dukes, earls, and ersatz Edens: aristocratic nature preservationists in colonial Africa.” Environmental Planning 14(1): 79-98.

In this paper I examine the role of members of the British aristocracy in the movement to create national parks in colonial Africa. Aristocratic hunter preservationists established the Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire (SPFE) and used their access to the Colonial Office to help direct colonial conservation policies. Focusing on the Earl of Onslow, SPFE president from 1926-1945, I suggest that the aristocratic experience with the landscape of rural England influenced conservationists' ideas for preserving an idealized wild Africa. I explore the ways in which social and cultural constructions of African nature embodied by the SPFE's proposals reflected and helped to legitimate British imperialist ideology. Ultimately, the history of aristocratic involvement in conservation is critical to understanding the development of an institutional global nature-preservation movement. (Author)

Neumann, R (1997). “Primitive ideas: protected area buffer zones and the politics of land in Africa.” Development and Change 28(3): 559- 582.

This article critically evaluates participatory, integrated conservation and development programmes in Africa, focusing on protected area buffer zones. I argue that, despite the emphasis on participation and benefit-sharing, many of the new projects replicate more coercive forms of conservation practice and often constitute an expansion of state authority into remote rural areas. I suggest that the reasons for this state of affairs can be traced in part to the persistence in conservation interventions of Western ideas and images of the Other. These stereotypes result in misguided assumptions in conservation programmes which have important implications for the politics of land in buffer zone communities. (Source)

Neumann, RP (1995). “Ways of seeing Africa: colonial recasting of African society and landscape in Serengeti National Park.” Ecumene 2(2): 149-169.

Neumann, RP (1998). Imposing Wilderness: Struggles over Livelihood and Nature Preservation in Africa. Berkeley, University of Berkeley Press.

Newmark, W, D Manyanza, et al. (1994). “The conflict between wildlife and local people living adjacent to protected areas in Tanzania: human density as a predictor.” Conservation Biology 8(1): 249-255.

Newmark, WD, NL Leonard, et al. (1993). “Conservation attitudes of local people living adjacent to five protected areas in Tanzania.” Biological Conservation 63: 177-183.

Norton, A (1996). “Experiencing nature: the reproduction of environmental discourse through safari tourism in East Africa.” Geoforum 27(3): 355-373.

Nyerges, A (1996). “Ethnography in the reconstruction of African land use histories: a Sierra Leone example.” Africa 66(1): 122- 144.

The history of vegetation and land use in western Africa includes a pattern of environmental change that can best be described as gradual, subtle, and difficult to measure accurately. As compared, for example, with the process of large-scale felling in Amazonia, deforestation in this context is not readily amenable to analysis and quantification. Local ethnographic, ecological, and ethnohistorical techniques, however, can be used to develop the information required to advance our understanding of the processes of land use and forest change in the region. In this article, research into the contemporary ecology and ethnography of one swidden farming group, the Susu of Sierra Leone, is combined with historical reconstruction and ethnohistorical documentation of the area, beginning with the visit of the Portuguese Jesuit Priest Fr Balthazar Barreira in 1516. Later documentary sources include the journal of the British staff sergeant Brian O'Beirne, who explored the road from Freetown to the Fouta Jallon in 1821, and an account of a regional tour by the colonial traveller Frederick Migeod in 1922. These and other data are used to determine how present production systems cause processes of forest change, to assess the extent to which present production systems reflect the past, and to determine how past systems have affected the environment and changed and evolved over time. (Source)

Peters, J (1998). “Sharing national park entrance fees: forging new partnerships in Madagascar.” Society and Natural Resources 11(5): 517-530.

Ecotourism has been promoted by the Ranomafana National Park integrated conservation and development project (ICDP) in Madagascar to raise revenue for park management and create income-generating opportunities for local residents. In conjunction with this ICDP, the Malagasy National Association for the Management of Protected Areas (ANGAP) initiated a policy in 1993 of sharing half of the national park entrance fees with local entities to demonstrate the benefits of conservation. A Management Committee comprised of local area villagers is responsible for reviewing and selecting village proposals for development microprojects to be funded by the park entrance fees. A General Assembly with locally chosen village representatives from the park's peripheral zone is responsible for formal dialogue between the resident population and the Management Committee. By forging new management partnerships between local villagers, ICDP personnel, and national authorities, ecotourism can begin to make conservation of nature financially beneficial to local people. (Journal)

Peters, J (1998). “Transforming the integrated conservation and development project (ICDP) approach: observations from the Ranomafana National Park Project, Madagascar.” Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 11(1): 17-47.

Preservation of the biological diversity and ecosystems in protected areas can be achieved through projects linking conservation of the protected areas with improved standards of living for resident peoples within surrounding buffer zones. This is the hypothetical claim of the integrated conservation and development project (ICDP) approach to protected area management. This paper, based on several years of experience with the Ranomafana National Park Project in Madagascar, questions the major assumptions of this approach from ethical and practical perspectives. The four basic strategies available to ICDPs -protected areas, buffer zones, compensation, and economic development- are analyzed and shown to be deficient or untested in the case of Ranomafana. Recommendations are made to explore conservation models other than the western conception of the national park, to modify the notion of a buffer zone outside the protected area, to redistribute money or other resources directly to the poor people living in and around the protected areas, and to eliminate the middle men in the development business. An appeal is made to focus on local education, organization and discipline in order to promote self-determination and self-reliance among resident peoples of protected areas. The paper argues that public works program, similar to the Roosevelt Administration's Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s, funded through a hard-currency endowment or other innovative financing mechanism, should be tried as a replacement for the currently questionable ICDP approach at Ranomafana. (Journal)

Peters, P (1992). “Manoeuvres and debates in the interpretation of land rights in Botswana.” Africa 62(3): 413-434.

Peters, P (1994). Dividing the Commons: Politics, Policy and Culture in Botswana. Charlottesville, University of Virginia Press.

Rohde, R (1993). Afternoons in Damaraland: common land and common sense in one of Namibia's former homelands. Centre of African Studies Occasional Paper #41, University of Edinburgh. Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh.

Schroeder, R (1997). “''Re-claiming'' land in the Gambia: gendered property rights and environmental intervention.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 87(3): 487-508.

By definition, land reclamation programs render marginally productive land resources more valuable to a broader set of users. The question of who gets access to rejuvenated lands is often highly political, however. Environmental managers ''reclaim'' land resources by rehabilitating them, but they simultaneously reanimate struggles over property rights in the process, allowing specific groups of resource users to literally and figuratively ''re-claim'' the land. Relying on data gathered during fourteen months of field work between 1989 and 1995, this paper analyzes the openings created by environmental policy reforms introduced over the past two decades along The Gambia River Basin, and the tactics and strategies rural Gambians have developed to manipulate these policies for personal gain. Specifically, I demonstrate how women market gardeners pressed ''secondary'' usufruct rights to great advantage to ease the economic impact of persistent drought conditions for the better part of a decade, only to have male lineage heads and community leaders ''re-claim'' the resources in question through donor-generated agroforestry and soil and water management projects. This is thus a study of the responses different community groups have made to a shifting international development agenda centered on environmental goals. It is simultaneously an analysis of those environmental policies and practices and their impact on gendered patterns of resource access and control within a set of critical rural livelihood systems. (Source)

Shepherd, G (1992). The realities of the commons: Answering Hardin from Somalia. in Forest Policies, Forest Politics. G Shepherd, Ed. London, Overseas Development Institute.

Shyamsundar, P (1996). “Constraints on socio-buffering around the Mantadia National Park in Madagascar.” Environmental Conservation 23(1): 67-73.

Integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) involve the establishment of parks and reserves with protective or buffer zones around them. Socio-buffering provides local residents with alternatives to traditional land-use activities, but the actual implementation of socio-buffering programmes is difficult. Socio-economic requirements and constraints to socio-buffering were assessed for the Mantadia National Park in eastern Madagascar based on five criteria. Previously unused lands for compensating people for loss of access to areas within the park were found to be insufficient. While there existed institutions and programmes for developing substitute land-use activities, successful adoption of these activities was crucially dependent on their economic viability. Socio-buffering activities need to not only provide goods that are substitutes for goods that are traditionally consumed, but they also need to be at least as profitable as traditional economic efforts. Also, if land and labour are not a constraint to agricultural expansion, socio-buffering activities can themselves result in increased deforestation. Finally, the long-term effectiveness of socio-buffering was likely to be dependent on the satisfaction of a number of stake-holder interests, and on explicit linkages developed between socio-buffering activities and conservation. (Journal)

Tisdell, C and K Roy (1997). “Good governance, property rights and sustainable resource use.” South African Journal of Economics 65(1): 28-43.

Wells, M (1996). “The social role of protected areas in the new South Africa.” Environmental Conservation 23(4): 322-331.

Western, D (1994). Ecosystem conservation and rural development: the case of Amboseli. in Natural Connections: Perspectives in Community-based Conservation. D Western and RM Wright, Ed. Washington DC, Island Press.

Wilmsen, E (1989). Land Filled with Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.

Wynne, AT and MC Lyne (1995). “Communities, institutions and natural resources: an assessment of case studies from KwaZulu Natal.” Development Southern Africa 12(5): 649-667.

This article describes three community-based organizations (CBOs) that were established to protect natural resources in parts of KwaZulu Natal. The object is to determine why some CBOs are more successful than others. The case-studies (Dukuduku Forest, Shongweni Resources Reserve and Thukela Biosphere Reserve) are analysed and compared using criteria suggested by the theory of institutional economics. It is concluded that the rural poor are unlikely to comply with rules restricting their access to natural resources unless the benefits are obvious. Creating appropriate management institutions is a necessary first step, but it may also be necessary to subsidise their enforcement costs and development programmes. (Econlit)