COMMUNITY IN CONSERVATION

NORTH AMERICA

GENERAL AGRICULTURE FOREST TENURE MARINE FISHERIES PASTORAL PROTECTED AREAS WILDLIFE

GENERAL

Anonymous (1996). “Special issue: environmental conflict.” Sociological Perspectives 39: 211-331.

A special issue on environmental conflict in the U.S. Topics discussed include science in environmental conflicts; the impact of race on environmental quality; the experience of citizen group participants in alternative dispute resolution processes; ecological postmodern praxis in radical environmentalist identities; the demise of community and ecology in the Pacific Northwest; mediation of environmental conflicts in Hawaii; and the systemic and anti systemic forces in the battle for the preservation of the Brazilian Amazon rain forest. (Journal)

Berneshawi, S (1997). “Resource management and the Mi'kmaq Nation.” Canadian Journal of Native Studies 17(1): 115-148.

Chance, N and E Andreeva (1995). “Sustainability, equity, and natural-resource development in northwest Siberia and arctic Alaska.” Human Ecology 23(2): 217-240.

Today, the search for new energy sources continues unabated throughout the North. At the same time, scientists are increasingly concerned over the degradation of the Arctic and sub-Arctic environment stemming from fossil fuel and other large-scale energy projects already underway. Similar apprehensions are expressed by indigenous peoples who have often suffered from the impact of such development. While the most dramatic evidence of environmental devastation and social disruption is found in the Russian North serious problems are by no means confined to that area alone. Nor are these negative effects necessarily limited to the borders of the country in which they originated. Indeed, the deleterious environmental impact of our global industrial economy has become sufficiently profound that social analysts are beginning to ask whether development strategies that cause such harm to the Arctic and sub-Arctic region should continue; and if not, what should replace them. This article addresses these issues as they relate to questions of sustainability, equity, political empowerment and human rights in northwest Siberia and northern North America (Journal)

Cronon, W (1992). “A place for stories: nature, history and narrative.” Journal of American History March: 1347-1376.

Dowie, M (1992). “The new face of environmentalism.” Utne Reader Jul/Aug(52): 1048.

Durning, AB (1989). “Grass-roots groups are our best hope for global prosperity and ecology.” Utne Reader July/Aug(34): 408.

Eikeland, PO (1994). “US environmental NGOs: new strategies for new environmental problems?” The Journal of Social, Political and Studies 19(3): 259(227).

Environmental non-governmental organizations (NGOs) no longer limit themselves to merely criticizing government policies, but play an active political role by implementing differing strategies such as influencing the government through public pressure and conflict/cooperation with industry. Major environmental NGOs include the Environmental Defense Fund, the World Resources Institute and the International Institute for Energy Conservation. Such NGOs seek to find solutions to environmental problems such as the conservation of natural resources and the control of pollution at national and global levels, the scope and complexity of which are increasing rapidly. (Econlit)

Flanders, N (1998). “Native American sovereignty and natural resource management.” Human Ecology 26(3): 425-449.

The relationship between Native Americans and the Euro-American settlers has evolved from the latter seeking to end the separate identity of the former to one in which the U.S. government uses Native rights to control large-scale resource problems. This new relationship arose out of a need to control water in Western states for irrigation, but has expanded into other areas. The Navajo sheep reductions of the 1930s and 1940s may be seen as an instance of this relationship. Concerns about siltation behind the Hoover Dam justified a program that dramatically transformed the Navajo economy. A second case concerns conflict over a caribou herd in northwestern Alaska. The conflict eventually led to the Federal government taking management of fish and game on Federal lands back from the state government. Both these cases show the development of a technocracy, based on Federal trusteeship over Native resources, concerned with the control of nature similar to that observed in Wittfogel's writings on Chinese irrigation (Journal)

Gibson, C and T Koontz (1998). “When "community" is not enough: institutions and values in community-based forest management in southern Indiana.” Human Ecology 26(4): 621-647.

Community-based management is increasingly viewed as the most appropriate arrangement for promoting sustainable development of naturalresources, A common assumption is that the values of community members, often assumed to be homogeneous, foster successful outcomes. However analysts often treat these values and their homogeneity as exogenous factors, ignoring the community's potential role in managing members' values. This study of community-based forest management in two southern Indiana sites examines how the members of the two communities created institutions to screen, maintain, and defend their values. Analysis reveals that different institutions shaped members' preferences and led to different levels of community stability, conflict management, and natural resource condition. We argue that understandingcommunity-based management processes and outcomes requires careful attention to how institutions facilitate or hamper theconstruction of community members' values. (Journal)

Gottesfeld, L (1994). “Aboriginal burning for vegetation management in Northwest British-Columbia.” Human Ecology 22(2): 171-188.

The Gitksan and Wet'suwet'en peoples of northwest British Columbia occupy the upper drainage of the Skeena River and the western headwaters of the Fraser River. They live in a region of diverse topography, vegetation, and climate. Berry patch burning was the most important traditional vegetation manipulation. Black huckleberry and lowbush blueberry patches were burned to stimulate growth of new stems and production of berries, while preventing invasion by other shrub species and conifers. Maintenance of berry patches by burning was discontinued in the 1930s and 1940s because of fire suppression by the British Columbia Forest Service. Spring burning on south facing slopes, village sites, and garden sites was also practiced, and continues to the present. It occurs in aspen, pine, or grass dominated seral communities, or cottonwood floodplain forest, and is intended to control brush and encourage growth of grass. (SSCI)

Gottesfeld, L (1994). “Conservation, territory, and traditional beliefs: An analysis of Gitksan and Wetsuweten subsistence, Northwest British-Columbia, Canada.” Human Ecology 22(4): 443-465.

Aspects of the culture, resource exploitation and beliefs of the Gitksan and Wet'suwet'en peoples of northwestern British Columbia are examined to explore the relationship of their cultural practices, land tenure, and beliefs to resource conservation. Traditional Gitksan and Wet'suwet'en practices and beliefs contain a number of elements which acted to promote conservation, including territoriality, prescribed burning, and proscription of waste, and other elements which are more difficult to reconcile with a biological model of conservation. The concept of humans as part of the natural world, and the requirement for respect for all natural entities are the fundamental to mediating human interactions with other species in the Gitksan and Wet'suwet'en cultures. (Journal)

Hahn, S (1982). “Hunting, fishing, and foraging: common rights and class relations in the Postbellum South.” Radical History Review 26: 37-64.

Johnson, K (1993). “Reconciling rural communities and resource conservation.” Environment 35: 16-20+.

Over the past several years, more and more projects have been launched in the Pacific Northwest that try to reconcile the goals of economic vitality and environmental stewardship in rural communities. The more promising initiatives do not try to reach an elusive "balance" between economy and environment, which leaves habitats half protected, rural economies weakened, and personal principles compromised. Instead, they try to create synergies ways that economic activity can promote a healthy environment and that healthy ecosystems can enrich their inhabitants both economically and otherwise. Although new, many of the projects offer important lessons to practitioners and policymakers in the field. The Clinton administration's Forest Plan for a Sustainable Economy and a Sustainable Environment is discussed, and ongoing projects in the Northwest are described. (Wilsonweb)

LaDuke, W (1996). “Like tributaries to a river: the growing strength of native environmentalism.” Sierra 81(6): 38(38).

Norton, J, R Pawluk, et al. (1996). “Observation and experience linking science and indigenous knowledge at Zuni, New Mexico.” Journal of Arid Environments 39(2): 331-340.

Ancient agricultural societies farming the same soils for centuries offer alternative knowledge for combating desertification. The resulting agriculture is sustainable as well as culturally and environmentally appropriate. This paper describes an approach to enabling one such system at the Zuni Indian Reservation, New Mexico. The approach links agroecology and ethnoscience research to grassroots community action. Agroecology research has revealed enhanced soil quality in traditional runoff agricultural fields, while ethnoscience shows a subtle understanding of local soils and geomorphology. The research supports community action by recognizing and valuing a local agricultural system so that solutions to land degradation can build on indigenous knowledge. (C)1998 Academic Press Limited.

Notzke, C (1995). “A new perspective in aboriginal natural resource management: comanagement.” Geoforum 26(2): 187-209.

Co-management is a recurrent theme of growing importance in the management of renewable resources in Canada, particularly where aboriginal and non-aboriginal people are interested in utilizing these resources. 'Co-management' broadly refers to the sharing of power and responsibility between government and local resource users. This is achieved by various levels of integration of local and state level management systems. In practice there is a wide spectrum of co-management arrangements, ranging from the tokenism of local participation in government research to local communities retaining substantial self-management power. Comanagement regimes may be area-specific, or they may be focused on one particular species. Co-management regimes for renewable resources between aboriginal and non-aboriginal parties are being established in all parts of Canada under widely varying circumstances and for different purposes. One of the most important vehicles for the establishment of co-management regimes is the settlement of comprehensive aboriginal claims, which usually involves exclusive and/or preferential harvesting rights for aboriginal people on Crown lands within their claim territory and their involvement in the management of these resources. Other comanagement regimes are initiated by government in response to a perceived or real resource crisis, or by aboriginal groups as a means of conflict resolution and to protect treaty and aboriginal rights. More recently co-management has also been adopted by provincial governments as a tangible expression of a fundamental rethinking of rights and relationships. Not surprisingly, the success rate of comanagement schemes varies. The integration and mutual accommodation of such dissimilar entities as the indigenous and state systems of resource management in any form of co-management is an extremely complicated and potentially frustrating process. Nevertheless, this route has assisted aboriginal people in Canada in regaining considerable influence over the management of resources they depend upon. Furthermore, there is a distinct possibility that down the road of political evolution co-management of natural resources will be recognized as a constitutionally entrenched right of aboriginal people. (Source)

Ohmagari, K and F Berkes (1997). “Transmission of indigenous knowledge and bush skills among the Western James Bay Cree women of subarctic Canada.” Human Ecology 25(2): 197-222.

The transmission of 93 items of women's indigenous knowledge and bush skills was studied in two subarctic Omushkego (West Main) Cree Indian communities, Moose Factory and Peawanuck, Ontario, Canada. About half of all bush skills were still being transmitted at the ''hands-on'' learning stage. Some skills such as setting snares and fishnets, beadwork, smoking geese, and tanning moose and caribou hides were transmitted well. Many skills no longer essential for livelihoods, such as some fur preparation skills and food preservation techniques, were not. Loss of certain skills and incomplete transmission of others (a lower level of mastery than in older generations) were attributable to changes in the educational environment. diminished time available in the bush, problems related to learning bush skills at later ages, and changes in value systems. These factors seemed to impair the traditional mode of education based on participant observation and apprenticeship in the bush, which provided the essential self-disciplining educational environment. Policy measures to counteract these trends may include the institution

of a hunters' income security program to provide incentives for family units to go on the land, rather than all-male hunting parties. (SSCI)

Reid, TS and DD Murphy (1995). “Providing a regional context for local conservation action.” BioScience 45: S 84-S 90.

Part of a special supplement on science and biodiversity policy. California's coastal sage scrub community represents the first trial of the National Community Conservation Planning program. This program entails the application of present day tools of conservation biology to local land use planning. It integrates conservation and planning to link social and economic considerations to biological concerns. Land ownership and conservation planning and the Natural Community Planning Act of 1991 are discussed. In addition, the planning challenges, planning approaches, and conservation guidelines used in the sage scrub community project are outlined, as is the current status of the program. (Source)

Reimer, G (1993). “'Community-based' as a culturally appropriate concept of development: a case study from Pangnirtung, Northwest Territories.” Culture 13(2): 67-74.

Schwab, J (1994). Deeper shades of green: the rise of blue-collar and minority environmentalism in America. San Francisco, Sierra Club Books.

Somma, M and S Tolleson-Rinehart (1997). “Tracking the elusive green women: sex, environmentalism, and feminism in the United States and Europe.” Political Research Quarterly 50: 153-169.

AGRICULTURE:

Chapeskie, AJ (1990). “Indigenous law, state law and the management of natural resources: wild rice and the Wabigoon Lake Ojibway Nation.” Law and Anthropology 5: 129-166.

FOREST:

Brightman, RA (1987). Conservation and resource depletion: the case of the boreal forest Algonquians. in The Question of The Commons. B McCay and J Acheson, Ed. Tucson, University of Arizona Press: 121-141.

Dumont, CW, Jr (1996). “The demise of community and ecology in the Pacific Northwest: historical roots of the ancient forest conflict.” Sociological Perspectives 39: 277-300.

Part of a special issue on environmental conflict in the U.S. The writer discusses the economic and ecological crises in the Pacific Northwest that have come about as a result of the loss of 90 percent of the region's ancient, or "old growth," forests. A description of the sense of community and cultural heritage that is being lost in the small, timber dependent communities in the region a social crisis that has resulted from the ecological and economic crises is provided. It is concluded that all of these crises should be comprehended as resulting from the economic, political, and historical circumstances that facilitated the emergence of the wealthiest and biggest timber ownership. (Journal)

Fortmann, L and J Kusel (1990). “New voices, old beliefs: forest environmentalism among new and long-standing rural residents.” Rural Sociology 55(2): 214.

Hansis, R (1998). “A political ecology of picking: non-timber forest products in the Pacific Northwest.” Human Ecology 26(1): 67-86.

Using a political ecology framework this research analyzes the recent entry of recent Latino and Southeast Asian immigrants into the harvesting of non-timber forest products in the Pacific Northwest. Using both permit data and interviewing, it suggests that a world market for these products, government policy, and environmental conditions have the potential for driving harvests to unsustainable levels and exacerbating incipient conflicts. (Journal)

Huntsinger and McCaffrey (1995). “ A forest for the trees: Forest management and the Yurok environment.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 19: 155-192.

Machlis, GE and JE Force (1988). “Community stability and timber-dependent communities.” Rural Sociology 53(2): 220.

Pavel, DM, MJ Pavel, et al. (1993). “Too long, too silent: the threat to cedar and the sacred ways of the Skokomish.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 17(3): 53-80.

Pierre, YL (1994). “Illicit harvest.” National Parks 68(5-6): 33.

Richards, R and M Creasy (1997). “Ethnic diversity, resource values, and ecosystem management: Matsutake mushroom harvesting in the Klamath bioregion.” Society and Natural Resources 9(4): 359-374.

Values attached to natural resources by cultural groups are often overlooked in defining the goals of ecosystem management. Resource values may be especially important when groups compete not only for the use but also the cultural meaning of a common resource. When groups increasingly differ in ethnicity and marginality, the resource values which they attach to that common resource may diverge sharply. As a result, ecosystem management goals may not adequately address the concerns of different ethnic groups who use a natural resource. This is the case with special forest products, an understudied component of ecosystem management. We examined the role of resource values and resource competition in special forest product harvesting in this investigation of North American matsutake or tanoak mushroom (Tricholoma magnivelare) collection in national forests in the Klamath bioregion. Data obtained through picker surveys, field interviews, and analysis of mushroom permits indicated that different ethnic groups varied in their harvesting experience, harvesting patterns, means of resource control, and resource values. These variations stemmed from competing resource use and diverging resource values and revealed how ethnic diversity contributes to resource conflicts and affects forest sustainability. (Source)

Satterfield, T (1997). “"Voodoo Science" and common sense: ways of knowing old-growth forests.” Journal of Anthropological Research 53(443-459).

Willems Braun, B (1997). “Buried epistemologies: the politics of nature in (post) colonial British Columbia.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 87: 3-31.

The writer seeks to explore modern representations of the "rainforest" and "nature" in the Clayoquot Sound region of British Columbia, Canada, and traces a series of "buried epistemologies" through which neocolonial relations are asserted in the region. He examines the emergence of "nature" as a discrete and separate object of aesthetic reflection, scientific inquiry, and political and economic calculations at specific sites and specific historical moments. He argues that although the concept of nature is invested with, and embedded in, social histories, the "forest" has recently been constructed as a realm separate from "culture" and relocated within the abstract spaces of the market, the nation, and the biosphere and global community. He contends that colonialist practices and rhetorics are present but unthought in many of the categories, identities, and representational practices used today in both public debate and scientific management of "natural landscape" and "natural resources." (Source)

LAND TENURE/PROPERTY RIGHTS/COMMONS:

Berkes, F (1987). Common-property resource management and Cree Indian fisheries in subarctic Canada. in The Question of the Commons. B McCay and J Acheson, Ed. Tucson, University of Arizona Press: 66-91.

Feld, S and K Basso, Eds. (1996). Senses of Place. Albuquerque, School of American Research.

Marchand, ME and R Winchell (1992). “Tribal implementation of GIS: a case study of planning applications with the Colville Confederated Tribes.” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 16(4): 175-183.

MARINE/FISHERIES:

Acheson, JM (1997). “Politics of managing the Maine lobster industry: 1860 to the present.” Human Ecology 25(1): 3-27.

Marine fisheries are in a state of crisis One of the few successfully managed fisheries is the Maine lobster industry where catches are at an all time high. An important factor in this success is the effectiveness of regulations which were developed during three periods over the course of the past 125 years. In all cases, the regulations are the result of heavy lobbying activity by various factions in the industry. Both strong commercial rivalry and genuine concern for the well-being of the lobster resource played a role in generating these regulations However history did not repeat itself In each period the players, circumstances, and goals were very different The result, however is a set of effective regulationswhich are largely self-enforcing. (Journal)

Berkes, F (1987). Common-property resource management and Cree Indian fisheries in subarctic Canada. in The Question of the Commons. B McCay and J Acheson, Ed. Tucson, University of Arizona Press: 66-91.

Doubleday, N (1994). Arctic whales: sustaining indigenous peoples and conserving Arctic resources. in Elephants and Whales: Resources for Whom?Ed, Basel : Gordon and Breach Publishers S. A.

Faegteborg, M (1987). “Harpoon is cast - the Inuit establish a nature conservation strategy for the Arctic.” IWGIA Newsletter 49: 3-8.

Freeman, MMR (1997). “Issues affecting subsistence security in arctic societies.” Arctic Anthropology 34(1): 7-17.

Huntington, H (1998). “Observations on the utility of the semi-directive interview for documenting traditional ecological knowledge.” ARCTIC 51(3): 237-242.

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) offers ecological information and insight relevant to ecological management and research that cannot be obtained from other sources. Its use is hindered by difficulties of access, in that TEK is typically not available to a wide audience. Documentation can overcome this obstacle, allowing TEK to be considered with other forms of easily disseminated information. This paper describes the author's experience using the semi-directive interview to document TEK about beluga whales inAlaska. This method allows the participants as well as the researcher to guide the interview, so that associations made by the participant, and not just those anticipated by the researcher, are discussed. Using maps as the starting point for discussions with individuals or groups, the interviews covered expected topics, such as migration and feeding behavior, as well as unanticipated topics, such as the possible influence of beavers on beluga distribution. The primary research session was followed a year later by a review session to verify the accuracy of the draft report, add missing information, or remove information the publication of which might harm community interests. The author found the semi-directive interview to be an effective and powerful method for accurate and comprehensive documentation of TEK. It worked especially well in group interviews, which allowed participants to stimulate and validate each other. (Journal)

McCay, B (1988). “Muddling through the clam beds: cooperative management of New Jersey's hard clam spawner sanctuaries.” Journal of Shellfish Resources 7(2): 327-340.

Palmer, C (1993). “Folk management, soft evolutionism, and fishers motives: Implications for the regulation of the lobster fisheries of Maine and Newfoundland.” Human Organization 52(4): 414-420.

This paper uses an examination of the relations between indigenous management practices and formal regulations in the lobster fisheries of Maine and Newfoundland to revise some current assumptions about the nature of indigenous practices. It argues that many current conceptions of indigenous practices are based on a flawed theoretical position referred to as ''soft evolutionism'' A rejection of ''soft evolutionism'' leads to the realization that the greatest contribution of indigenous practices to the formation of formal regulations is not to be found in their unintended conservative effects, but in their ability to reveal the conscious goals and values of fishers. (Journal)

Pinkerton, E (1987). Intercepting the state: dramatic processes in the assertion of local co-management rights. in The Question of the Commons. B McCay and J Acheson, Ed. Tucson, University of Arizona Press: 344-369.

Robinson, GM (1997). “Community-based planning: Canada's Atlantic Coastal Action Program (ACAP).” The Geographical Journal 163(1): 25-38.

The Atlantic Coastal Action Program (ACAP) was established in 1991 by Environment Canada in Canada's four Atlantic provinces. Focusing on 13 designated areas, ACAP depends largely upon strong participation of local residents to manage coastal resources, as it attempts to build 'bottom-up' initiatives through the formation of stakeholder committees comprising a cross-section of community residents, local government officials and representatives from local businesses and academia. This paper reports the preliminary findings of research on ACAP, examining the growth of community participation in the Program and analysing the general development of the scheme. It concentrates primarily on three rural localities designated under ACAP, reporting interviews with local residents and analysing impacts upon local communities. It is suggested that, although participation in and awareness of the scheme by local residents is relatively limited, the groundwork has been laid for both more extensive community involvement and for further development of significant practical attempts to improve the quality of the environment. Much will depend on availability of funds once the 13 ACAP groups have prepared environmental management plans during 1996. (Wilsonweb)

PASTORAL:

Kvist, R (1991). “Saami reindeer pastoralism as an indigenous resource management system: the case of Tuorpon and Sirkas, 1760-1860.” Arctic Anthropology 28(2): 121-134.

PROTECTED AREA:

Harris, L (1997). “Urban neighbors' wildlife-related attitudes and behaviors near federally protected areas in Tucson, Arizona.” Natural Areas Journal 17: 144-148.

Results of a 1990 mail survey of 577 households living within one mile of the Pusch Ridge Wilderness and Saguaro National Park; recommends community relations tactics for wilderness area managers. (Source)

Huntsinger, L (1998). “ Science and ecosystem management in the national parks.” Society and Natural Resources 11(2): 196- 198.

Keiter, R (1997). “Preserving nature in the national parks: law, policy, and science in a dynamic environment.” Denver University Law Review 74(3): 649-695.

Machlis, GE (1989). Managing parks as human ecosystems. in Public Places and Public Spaces. I Altman and E Zube, Ed. New York, Plenum Press: 255-275.

Machlis, GE (1995). Social science and protected area management: the principles of partnership. in Expanding Partnerships in Conservation. JA McNeely, Ed. Washington DC, Island Press.

Overton, J (1979). “A critical examination of the establishment of national parks and tourism in underdeveloped areas: Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland.” Antipode 11(2): 34-47.

SoleckiI, WD (1994). “Putting the biosphere reserve concept into practice - some evidence of impacts in rural communities in the United-States.” Environmental Conservation 21(3): 242- 247.

This paper examines some of the impacts of Biosphere Reserve planning on the socio-economic conditions of rural communities in the United States. Through a review of the literature, it is argued that three broad types of problems can develop when Biosphere Reserve plans are put into effect. These include unexpected development shifts, shifts in the distribution of benefits and costs of economic development, and a loss of local governments' ability to provide public services. Though Biosphere Reserve planning has been cast as a strategy for experimentation in community and ecological sustainability, the planning and management process itself causes paradoxical local impacts. It is argued that problems resulting from Biosphere Reserve planning are similar to problems resulting from other types of land-use planning in developed countries. Several broad suggestions are offered for responding to these issues. They include an increased socio-historical appreciation among planners of the current conditions of rural communities, and an increase in evaluation research on the impacts of Biosphere Reserve management strategies. (Source)

Vance, L (1998). “National parks and the women's voice: A history.” American Historical Review 103(2): 609- 610.

White, D (1993). “Tourism as economic development for native people living in the shadow of a protected area: a North American case study.” Society and Natural Resources 6(4): 339-345.

This article is a case study about the economic feasibility of a tourist development project on the Havasupai Reservation in Northern Arizona, which borders the Grand Canyon National Park. The central issue addressed is the merits of promoting tourism as a means of economic development for a native population living in or next to a protected area. The case study supports many insights on tourist-based development prevalent in the literature, particularly the importance of Havasupai control of tourist development. The case study also attests to the complexity of tourism as an economic development strategy, identifying some of the trade-offs associated with tourism on that Havasupai Reservation. In so doing, the paper discusses the limitations of economic analysis, for many of these trade-offs cannot be expressed in monetary terms. The major lesson of the case study, however, is that rigorous analytical economic analysis of individual development projects is essential. While economic analyses are severely limited in scope, such analyses can help local people evaluate some of the trade-offs associated with tourism, and lead to better decisions about the appropriate scale and extent of tourist development. (Source)

WILDLIFE:

Crum, R (1997). “Healing the spirit: Indian tribes in the U.S. are raising bison, not only for food, but for spiritual sustenance.” Wildlife Conservation 100 Mar./Apr.: 36-43.

The InterTribal Bison Cooperative (ITBC) is restoring bison herds on reservation lands and simultaneously reclaiming Native American culture. The great herds of bison were destroyed during the Indian Wars of the last century by a federal government and military command that recognized the importance of the animal to native life. Since the ITBC involving 40 tribes from 17 states began its work in 1991, its bison population has been boosted to over 8,000 animals and half a million acres have been dedicated to the project. The cooperative seeks to restore the entire habitat and to redirect community structure around the bison. Although ostensibly the management system appears to be a mix of multiple use and wilderness, these concepts are alien to Native Americans, who see all land as sacred and with potential for use. (Wilsonweb)

Doubleday, N (1994). Arctic whales: sustaining indigenous peoples and conserving Arctic resources. in Elephants and Whales: Resources for Whom?Ed, Basel : Gordon and Breach Publishers S. A.

Franklin, TM (1997). “WIN: support for wildlife management.” Wildlife Society Bulletin 25 Fall: 745-746.

The Wildlife Society is establishing the Wildlife Information Network (WIN) to address the need for outreach to a wider community of wildlife enthusiasts. The WIN will authorize the chapters, student chapters, and individual members of the society to start up cooperative projects with landowners, groups, and businesses to improve conditions for wildlife by enhancing habitat quality and increasing recreational opportunities. The program will provide wildlife professionals with training that will allow them to provide solutions to apparent conflicts between resource users and to promote improved relations with businesses endeavoring to exercise an ethic of natural resource stewardship on their land. The WIN program is receiving a challenge grant from the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, in addition to matching grants from farming, forestry, and conservation groups. (Wilsonweb)

Howard, WW (1995/6). “Asking people first.” National Wildlife 34 Dec.: 6.

The National Wildlife Federation (NWF) has come up with a plan to replace the Endangered Species Act (ESA) with a revised law that increases citizen involvement in the decision making process. It proposes to replace Habitat Conservation Planning, currently a cumbersome process for deciding how to save a species in its habitat, with Community Based Recovery Planning, which will give communities a larger say in how the ESA is implemented. In addition, the NWF plan recommends the establishment of multispecies recovery plans and proposes a system that prevents endangerment of plant and animal species on public lands. (Wilsonweb)

Kellert, S (1984). “Urban American perceptions and uses of animals and the natural environment.” Urban Ecology 8: 209-228.

Kvist, R (1991). “Saami reindeer pastoralism as an indigenous resource management system: the case of Tuorpon and Sirkas, 1760-1860.” Arctic Anthropology 28(2): 121-134.

Osherenko, G (1988). “Can co-management save Arctic wildlife?” Environment 30(6): 6-13.