COMMUNITY IN CONSERVATION

COMMUNITY IN CONSERVATION

SOUTHEAST ASIA

GENERAL AGRICULTURE FOREST WATERSHED TENURE MARINE MOUNTAIN PROTECTED AREA WILDLIFE

GENERAL

Abdoellah, OS (1993). Indonesia Transmigrants and Adaptation: An Ecological Anthropological Perspective. Berkeley, Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies.

Asian Development Forum (1994). Let a hundred communities bloom: report of the First Asian Development Forum "Community based natural resource management: NGO experiences and challenges", 4-6 February 1992, New Delhi, India. Manila, Philippines, Asian NGO Coalition for Agrarian Reform and Rural Development.

Baines, G (1991). “Asserting traditional rights: community conservation in Solomon Islands.” Cultural Survival Quarterly 15(2): 49-51.

Basiago, AD (1995). “Sustainable development in Indonesia: a case study of an indigenous regime of environmental law and policy.” International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology 2(3): 199-211.

The tropical rainforests of Indonesia are threatened with deforestation caused by rapid economic development. Because this development hastens global warming and reduces biodiversity, it violates the doctrine of sustainable development. The Brundtland report, Our Common Future (Brundtland, 1987), defined sustainable development as 'development that meets the needs of the present, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs'. Sustainable development was adopted as the overarching world development policy of the 21st century at the Earth Summit in 1992, which introduced international accords to integrate economic development and environmental protection, manage and conserve the world's forests, stabilize production of the gases that cause global warming, and conserve the variety of living species. Indonesia views sustainable development with suspicion and is committed to economic development on the Western model. Sustainable development advocates, however, seek to save the Indonesian rainforests because they amount to 10% of those remaining in the world. They fear that the destruction of Indonesia's rainforests will, by hastening global warming, burden future generations with such problems as coastal flooding, migration of agricultural regions and habitat loss and, by reducing biodiversity, deprive them of the opportunity to study species and use them to

improve the human condition. The conservation of the tropical rainforests of Indonesia may depend on the rediscovery of its indigenous natural resource systems, which are tantamount to a regime of environmental law and policy. These systems include the water temple system of Ball, the home-garden system of Java, the adat and sasi systems of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku, the land-tenure system of West Kalimantan, the shifting cultivation system of East Kalimantan, and the traditional non-timber production systems of forest dwellers. These systems, which are characterized by permaculture, biodiversity conservation, property rights, and sustained yields, prevent Hardin's 'tragedy of the commons' (Hardin, 1968), and foster Leopold's 'biotic integrity' (Leopold, 1968). As a paradigm of land use governance, such systems have sustained the economy and environment of Indonesia on behalf of its people for millennia. It is concluded that the indigenous natural resource systems of Indonesia have a vital role to play in its sustainable development. (Source)

Boomgaard, P, F Colombijn, et al., Eds. (1997). Paper Landscapes: Explorations in the Environmental History of Indonesia. Leiden, KITLV Press.

Braatz, S (1992). Conserving Biological Diversity - A Strategy for Protected Areas in the Asia-Pacific Region. Washington, World Bank Technical Paper No. 193.

Bremen, J (1988). Shattered Image: Construction and Deconstruction of the Village in Colonial Asia. Dordrecht, Foris Publications.

Broad, R and J Cavanagh (1993). Plundering Paradise: The Struggle for the Environment in the Philippines. Berkeley, University of California Press.

Brookfield, H and Y Byron (1993). Southeast Asia's Environmental Future: The Search for Sustainability. Singapore, United Nations University Press.

Brosius, JP (1986). “River, forest and mountain: the Penan Gang landscape.” Sarawak Museum Journal 36(57): 173-184.

Bryant, RL (1998). Resource politics in colonial south-east Asia: a conceptual analysis. in Environmental Challenges in South-East Asia. VT King, Ed. Surrey, UK, Curzon Press.

Colchester, M (1989). Pirates, Squatters and Poachers: The Political Ecology of Dispossession of the Native Peoples of Sarawak. London, Survival International.

Colombijn, F (1998). “Global and local perspectives on Indonesia's environmental problems and the role of NGOs.” Bijdragen Tot De Taal- Land- En Volkenkund 154(2): 305-334.

Contreras, A (1994). “The two faces of environmentalism: the case of the Philippines.” Capitalism, Nature, Society 19(5).

Contreras, AP (1991). “The political economy of state environmentalism: the hidden agenda and its implications on transnational development in the Philippines.” Capitalism/Nature/Society 2(1): 66-85.

Cooper, R (1984). Resource Scarcity and the Hmong Response: Patterns of Settlement and Economy in Transition. Singapore, Singapore University Press.

Dorall, RF (1990). The dialectic of development: tribal responses to development capital in the Cordillera central, Northern Luzon, Philippines. in Tribal Peoples and Development in Southeast Asia. LT Ghee and AG Gomes, Ed. Kuala Lumpur, University of Malaya.

Dove, M (1986). “Peasant vs. government perception and use of the environment: a case-study of Banjarese ecology and river basin development in South Kalimantan.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27(1): 113-136.

Dove, M (1986). “Practical reason of weeds in Indonesia: peasant versus state views of Imperata and Chrmolaena.” Human Ecology 14(2): 163-190.

Eccelston, B and D Potter (1996). Environmental NGOs and different political contexts in South-east Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam. in Environmental Politics in Southeast Asia. R Bryant and M Parnwell, Ed. London, Routledge.

Ghee, LT and AG Gomes (1990). Tribal Peoples and Development in Southeast Asia. Petaling Jaya, Sun U Book Co.

Ghee, LT and M Valencia, Eds. (1990). Conflict Over Natural Resources in the Asia-Pacific Region. Singapore, Oxford University Press.

Gomes, AG (1990). Confrontation and continuity: simple commodity production among the Orang Asli. in Tribal Peoples and Development in Southeast Asia. LT Ghee and AG Gomes, Ed. Kuala Lumpur, University of Malaya.

Grove, R, V Damodaran, et al. (1998). Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Heersink, C (1998). Environmental adaptations in southern Sulawesi. in Environmental Challenges in South-East Asia. VT King, Ed. Surrey, UK, Curzon Press.

Hirsch, P (1989). “The state in the village: interpreting rural development in Thailand.” Development and Change 20: 35-56.

Hirsch believes that most studies of peasant/state relations fall into one of two paradigms. The study either believes the state enters the village and imposes institutional innovation and modernity through integration in the wider economy, or the other type is concerned with the extension of state power and hegemony into the village resulting in peasant exploitation. As a result, most village/state studies presuppose a big distinction between the two. Hirsch argues that is no longer the case, especially in the rural Thai village on which he bases his study. He argues that recent attention to rural development in Thailand has resulted in two contradictory development processes: citizen participation (in which the village becomes the state) and extended domination (in which the state becomes the village). (P. McElwee)

Hirsch, P (1990). Development Dilemmas in Thailand. Singapore, Oxford University Press.

Hirsch, P (1992). What is the Thai village? in National Identity and its Defenders, Thailand, 1939-1989. CJ Reynolds, Ed. Canberra, Monash Papers on Southeast Asia No. 25.

Hirsch, P (1993). Political Economy of the Environment in Thailand. Manila, Journal of Contemporary Asia Publishers.

Hirsch, P (1994). “Community resource management and political-economic restructuring in mainland Southeast Asia.” Journal of Business Administration 22: 69.

Hirsch, P (1995). “A state of uncertainty: political economy of community resource management at Tab Salao, Thailand.” Sojourn 10(2): 172-197.

Hirsch, P (1996). Environment and environmentalism in Thailand: material and ideological bases. in Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand. P Hirsch, Ed. Bangkok, Silkworm Books.

Hirsch, P (1998). Dams, resources and the politics of environment in mainland Southeast Asia. in The Politics of Environment in Southeast Asia. P Hirsch and C Warren, Ed. London, Routledge.

Hirsch, P and C Warren (1998). Introduction: through the environmental looking glass: the politics of resources and resistance in Southeast Asia. in The Politics of Environment in Southeast Asia. P Hirsch and C Warren, Ed. London, Routledge.

Hirsch, P and C Warren, Eds. (1998). The Politics of Environment in Southeast Asia. London, Routledge.

Hoadley, MC and C Gunnaesson (1996). The Village Concept in the Transformation of Rural Southeast Asia. Honolulu, Curzon Press.

Howitt, R, J Connell, et al., Eds. (1996). Resources, Nations and Indigenous Peoples: Case Studies from Australasia, Melanesia, and Southeast Asia. Melbourne, Oxford University Press.

Hutterer, K, Ed. (1985). Cultural Values and Human Ecology in Southeast Asia. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies.

Kalland, A and G Persoon (1999). Environmental Movements in Asia. Honolulu, Curzon Press.

Kemp, J (1988). Seductive Mirage: The Search for Community in Southeast Asia. Comparative Asian Studies Number Report #3, Amsterdam, Center for Asian Studies.

Kemp, J (1992). Hua Kok : social organization in North-Central Thailand. Canterbury, United Kingdom, Centre for Social Anthropology and Computing and the Centre of South-East Asian Studies, University of Kent at Canterbury.

King, VT (1997). Environmental Challenges in South-East Asia. Honolulu, Curzon Press.

Mitchell, B (1994). “Sustainable development at the village level in Bali, Indonesia.” Human Ecology 22(2): 189-211.

Using a stress-capability framework, the problems and opportunities for sustainable development at the village level in Bali are examined. Balinese culture incorporates a traditional form of local government which emphasizes cooperation, consensus building, and balance. These aspects provide a strong foundation for sustainable development initiatives. At the same time, many decisions are being taken external to the villages, and even to Bali, which may lead to problems for development initiatives. (Journal)

Parnwell, M and R Bryant (1996). Conclusion: towards sustainable development in Southeast Asia. in Environmental Politics in Southeast Asia. R Bryant and M Parnwell, Ed. London, Routledge.

Parnwell, M and R Bryant, Eds. (1996). Environmental Change in South-East Asia. London, Routledge.

Peluso, N (1993). Coercing conservation: the politics of state resource control. in The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics. R Lipschutz and K Concac, Ed. New York, Columbia University Press.

International environmental agreements assume that nation-states have the capacity, internal legitimacy, and the will to manage resources within their territorial boundaries. Although many state agencies or factions may be interested in joining international

conservation interests to preserve threatened resources and habitats, some state interests appropriate the ideology, legitimacy, and technology of conservation as a means of increasing or appropriating their control over valuable resources and recalcitrant populations. While international conservation groups may have no direct agenda for using violence to protect biological resources, their support of states which either lack the capacity to manage resources or intend to control 'national' resources at any price, contributes to the disenfranchisement of indigenous people with resource claims. This paper compares two examples of state efforts to control valuable resources in Kenya and Indonesia. In both cases, the maintenance of state control has led to a militarization of the resource 'conservation' process. International conservation interests either directly or indirectly legitimate the states' use of force in resource management. (SSCI)

Perry, JA and RK Dixon (1986). “An interdisciplinary approach to community resource management: Preliminary field test in Thailand.” Journal of Developing Areas 21(1): 31-47.

Porio, E and B Taylor (1995). Popular environmentalists in the Philippines: people's claims to natural resources. in Ecological Resistance Movements: The Global Emergence of Radical and Popular Environmentalism. BR Taylor, Ed. Albany, SUNY Press.

Pragtong, K and DE Thomas (1990). Evolving management systems in Thailand. in Keepers of the Forest. M Poffenberger, Ed. Washington, Kumarian Press.

Rambo, T, K Gillogly, et al., Eds. (1988). Ethnic Diversity and the Control of Natural Resources in Southeast Asia. Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies.

Rigg, J (1994). “Redefining the village and rural life: lessons from Southeast Asia.” The Geographic Journal 160(2): 123-135.

Rigg, JD (1991). “Grassroots development in Thailand: a lost cause?” World Development 19(2-3): 199-211.

Sage, C (1996). The search for sustainable livelihoods in Indonesian transmigration settlements. in Environmental Politics in Southeast Asia. R Bryant and M Parnwell, Ed. London, Routledge.

Sutton, K and J McMorrow (1998). Land use change in eastern Sabah. in Environmental Challenges in South-East Asia. VT King, Ed. Surrey, UK, Curzon Press.

Talbott, LM and MH Talbott, Eds. (1968). Conservation in Tropical South East Asia. Morges Switzerland, IUCN.

Tan-Kim-Yong, U (1992). Participatory land-use planning for natural resource management in Northern Thailand. ODI Rural Development Forestry Network Paper 14b. London, Overseas Development Institute.

Tegbaru, A (1998). Local environmentalism in Northeast Thailand. in Environmental movements in Asia. A Kalland and G Persoon, Ed. Richmond, Curzon Press: 151-178.

Tsing, A and P Greenough, Eds. (1999). Environmental Discourses and Human Welfare in South and Southeast Asia. Delhi, Oxford University Press.

Vandergeest, P (1993). “Constructing Thailand: regulation, everyday resistance.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 35: 133-158.

Vandergeest, P and N Peluso (1995). “Territorialization and state power in Thailand.” Theory and Society 24: 385-426.

Vayda, AP (1979). “Human ecology and economic development in Kalimantan and Sumatra.” Borneo Research Bulletin 11: 23-32.

Watson, DJ (1989). The evolution of appropriate resource-management systems. in Common Property Resources: Ecology and Community-Based Sustainable Development. F Berkes, Ed. London, Bellhaven: 55-69.

Winzeler, RL (1976). “Ecology, culture, social organization, and state formation in Southeast Asia.” Current Anthropology 17(4): 623-.

Yap, E (1998). The environment and local initiatives in southern Negros. in The Politics of Environment in Southeast Asia. P Hirsch and C Warren, Ed. London, Routledge.

AGRICULTURE:

Aumeeruddy, Y and B Sansonnens (1994). “Shifting from simple to complex agroforestry systems: an example of buffer-zone management from Kerinci (Sumatra, Indonesia).” Agroforestry Systems 28(2): 113-141.

Bass, S and E Morrison (1994). Shifting Cultivation in Thailand, Laos and Vietnam: Regional Overview and Policy Recommendations. London, International Institute for Environment and Development.

Belsky, J (1993). “Household food security, farm trees, and agroforestry: a comparative study in Indonesia and the Philippines.” Human Organization 52(2): 130-140.

Increasing numbers of studies suggest that farm trees and agroforestry practices improve household food security. Some have further speculated that poor farmers are responding to decreasing access to land and declining agricultural productivity by increasing farm tree and agroforestry activities because of the multiple benefits of trees, which are cash crops that demand relatively low levels of labor. This paper argues that the choice to cultivate trees, the decision as to which specific tree species are to be cultivated, and the determination of the spatial and temporal association of those trees with annual crops must all be evaluated on a historical and regional basis. Furthermore, in Southeast Asia, food security and upland farm decisions must be viewed within the broader context of the rice economy-the value people have for consuming rice, and its central position in household production decisions. (SSCI)

Belsky, J (1994). “Soil conservation and poverty: Lessons from upland Indonesia.” Society and Natural Resources 7(5): 429-443.

Bouis, H and LJ Haddad (1990). Effects of agricultural commercialization on land tenure, household resource allocation and nutrition in the Philippines. Washington, International Food Policy Research Institute.

Bryant, RL (1994). “Shifting the cultivator: the politics of teak regeneration in colonial Burma.” Modern Asian Studies 28(2): 225-250.

Colfer, C (1983). “Change and indigenous agroforestry in East Kalimantan.” Borneo Research Bulletin 15: 3-21.

Conklin, H (1957). Hanunoo Agriculture: A Report on an Integral System of Agriculture in the Philippines. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization.

Conklin distinguishes between partial systems of shifting cultivation (a technological expedient for a given purpose) and integral systems (the whole of the practitioners way of life and system of crop growing are inseparable). Within partial systems, there are supplementary swiddens (where a permanent field cultivator devotes part of his agricultural efforts to swiddening) and incipient or opportunistic swiddens (where the cultivator, often a migrant with little knowledge of swiddening, moves into a new area and devotes his energies to swidden fields). Within integral systems, Conklin distinguishes between those that clear primary or pioneer land, and those that swidden in secondary lands or previously swiddened areas. He says that the difference between these groups are important, as “partial system farms rarely intercrop or plant as many crops in the same field as integral system farmers”. Partial system farmers have strong sociocultural ties outside the immediate swidden areas into which they bring permanent field agricultural concepts of land use and ownership unknown in integral system areas. The Hanunoo of the Philippines are integral system swiddeners, and Conklin document their seasonal activities and various cropping systems. He says that there is much less data available about partial systems of swidden: “it appears that many partial systems, for a variety of reasons (from general inexperience to undiversified cropping) are less productive and more destructive than most integral systems. However, quantified data, or even detailed qualitative descriptions to make these views more explicit are almost entirely lacking”. In order to analyze swidden systems, Conklin says the first step should be the analysis of the structure and content of the particular agricultural systems involved. Conklin also suggests that subtypes of swiddening be distinguished on the basis of ten criteria: 1) principal crops raised, 2) crop associations and successions 3) crop fallow time ratios 4) dispersal of swiddens 5) use of livestock 6) use of specified tools and techniques 7) treatment of soil 8) vegetation cover of land cleared 9) climatic conditions 10) edaphic conditions. (P. McElwee)

Conklin, HC (1954). “An ethnoecological approach to shifting agriculture.” Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences 17: 133-142.

Based on his fieldwork in the Philippines, Conklin concludes the following are the realities about swiddening: swidden farming follows a locally determined, well defined pattern and requires constant attention and hard labor; for swidden making, second-growth forest is preferred; swidden fires are usually controlled by firebreaks around plots; details of swidden techniques vary from locale to locale; weeds in swiddens often serve a purpose: for example, Imperata is used for pasture and thatch; swiddens are rarely planted in monocrops; the efficiency of swiddens are best judged by total yield per unit of labor, not by productivity per acre; intercropping occurs in swiddens, and can sustain one swidden cycle for 2-3 years; crop rotation is practiced in swiddens, particularly wet cereals alternating with dry season legumes; and finally, fallow periods differ according to local ecology, and most swiddeners know the right cycle for their type of land. (P. McElwee)

Cramb, RA (1988). “Shifting cultivation and resource degradation in Sarawak: perceptions and policies.” Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs 22(1): 115-149.

Dove, M (1990). “Socio-political aspects of home gardens in Java.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 21(2): 155-163.

Dove, M and D Kammen (1997). “The epistemology of sustainable resource use: Managing forest products, swiddens, and high-yielding variety crops.” Human Organization 56(1): 91- 101.

This study examines the moral ecology of resource use through a comparison of the ideological bases of three systems of resource use in Southeast Asia: gathering forest products (viz., forest fruit), swidden agriculture, and the cultivation of high-yielding variety, green revolution crops. A trade-off between the magnitude of return and the frequency of return is accepted in the first two systems, but this is denied in the third system in which there is, instead, insistence on continuous, high-magnitude returns. In the fruit- gathering and swidden cultivation systems there is recognition of linkages to the wider temporal and spatial processes in which they are embedded, but in the green revolution system there is only a very narrow view of these linkages. Whereas the necessity of reciprocal exchange with their wider social and natural environments is accepted in the first two systems, such exchanges are minimized in the green revolution system. This study contributes to current debates about sustainable resource use, the conception of nature and culture, and the epistemology of science and the contemporary role of anthropology. (Journal)

Forsyth, T (1994). “The use of Cesium-137 measurements of soil erosion and farmers' perceptions to indicate land degradation amongst shifting cultivators in northern Thailand.” Mountain Research and Development 14(3): 229-244.

Hart, G, B White, et al., Eds. (1986). Agrarian Transformations: Local Processes and the State in Southeast Asia. Berkeley, University of California Press.

Lundberg, M (1996). “Ethnic minorities and the state: conflicting interests between shifting cultivators and the governments in Peru and Vietnam.” Research Report EPOS Environmental Policy and Society Linkoping University, Sweden 7(41).

The study describes some of the conflicting interests between shifting cultivators and the governments of two countries, Vietnam and Peru. It is argued that the governments of Peru and Vietnam view traditional shifting cultivation and ethnic minorities as a hindrance to development rather than a resource for learning how to exploit the local environment in a sustainable way. However the traditional shifting cultivators have a deep knowledge of the local environment and as a result their agriculture is more sustainable than non-traditional shifting cultivators' agriculture. (SSCI)

Marten, G (1986). Traditional agriculture in Southeast Asia: A human ecology perspective. Boulder, Westview Press.

Michon, G and FM Michon (1994). “Conversion of traditional village gardens and new economic strategies of rural households in the area of Bogor Indonesia.” Agroforestry Systems 25(1): 31-58.

O'Connor, R (1995). “Agricultural change and ethnic succession in Southeast Asian states: a case for regional anthropology.” Journal of Asian Studies 54(4): 968-996.

Schroeder, RA and K Suryanata (1996). Gender and class power in agroforestry systems: case studies from Indonesia and West Africa. in Liberation Ecologies: Environment, Development, Social Movements. R Peet and M Watts, Ed. London, Routledge.

Weinstock, J and N Vergara (1987). “Land or plants: Agricultural tenure in agroforestry systems.” Economic Botany 41: 312-322.

FOREST:

Adas, M (1983). Colonization, commercial agriculture and the destruction of the deltaic rainforests of British Burma in the late nineteenth century. in Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth-century World Economy. RP Tucker and JF Richards, Ed. Durham, Duke University Press.

Andreasson, A and I Markgren (1993). Sustainable Use of the Laotian Forest Resources. Gothenburg, Gothenburg University.

Angelson, A (1995). “Shifting cultivation and "deforestation": a study from Indonesia.” World Development 23(10): 1713-1729.

Ankarfjard, R and M Kegl (1998). “Tapping oleoresin from Diperocarpus alatus (Diperocaraceae) in a Lao village.” Economic Botany 52(1): 7-14.

Arentz, F (1996). Forestry and politics in Sarawak: the experience of the Penan. in Resources, Nations and Indigenous Peoples. R Howitt, J Connell and P Hirsch, Ed. Melbourne, Oxford University Press.

Ashton, PS (1985). Timber and minor forest product values in South East Asia. in The Future of Tropical Rain Forests in South East Asia. Davidson, Ed. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN Commission on Ecology Papers no 10.

Barbier, EB (1993). “Economic aspects of tropical deforestation in Southeast Asia.” Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 3: 215-234.

Bass, S and E Morrison (1994). Shifting Cultivation in Thailand, Laos and Vietnam: Regional Overview and Policy Recommendations. London, International Institute for Environment and Development.

Beer, Jd and MJ McDermott (1989). The Economic Value of Non-timber Forest Products in Southeast Asia, with Emphasis on Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. Amsterdam, Netherlands Committee for IUCN.

Bensel, TG (1994). Commercial woodfuel markets, smallholder tree cultivation and the environment in Cebu Province, Philippines. in Marketing of Multipurpose Tree Products in Asia. JB Raintree and HA Francisco, Ed. Bangkok, Winrock International: 75-98.

Bensel, TG and E Remidio (1994). “Woodfuel markets in Cebu: link to deforestation or reforestation?” Farm Forestry News 6(2): 2.

Bernard, S and R DeKoninck (1996). “The retreat of the forest in Southeast Asia: a cartographic assessment.” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 17(1): 1-14.

Rapid deforestation is a major problem throughout the tropical world. The conditions and the pace under which societies and economies of the Third World are currently evolving and growing, combined with the specificities of tropical forests, render the latter increasingly vulnerable. Among the major tropical areas of the world, Southeast Asia is perhaps the one where these conditions have had the most impact on the retreat of the forest cover over the last quarter of this century. This is illustrated through the presentation of two maps of the distribution of five basic forest formations in Southeast Asia circa 1970 and circa 1990. The maps are examined and compared, as well as confronted with statistical assessments of deforestation. Finally, the complex causes behind the retreat of the tropical forests as well as the implications of this retreat are briefly discussed. (Source)

Bodmer, R, R Mather, et al. (1991). “Rainforests in central Borneo - threatened by modern development.” Oryx 25: 21-36.

Boomgaard, P (1992). “Forest management and exploitation in colonial Java 1677-1897.” Forest and Conservation History 36(1): 4-14.

Braganza, G (1997). Philippines community-based forest management: options for sustainable development. in Environmental Politics in Southeast Asia. R Bryant and M Parnwell, Ed. London, Routledge.

Broad, R (1995). “The political economy of natural resources: case studies of the Indonesian and Philippine forest sectors.” The Journal of Developing Areas 29: 317-340.

Brookfield, H and Y Byron (1990). “Deforestation and timber extraction in Borneo and the Malay Peninsula.” Global Environmental Change 1(1): 42-56.

Brookfield, H, L Potter, et al. (1995). In Place of the Forest: Environmental and Socio-Economic Transformation in Borneo and the Eastern Malay Peninsula. Tokyo: United Nations University.

A general review of environmental issues in Borneo, this book breaks little new theoretical or practical ground. The authors use the concept of ‘criticality’ to frame their work: how has the nature of resource use in Borneo come about, and how can future issues be tackled. Criticality is taken to mean “a continuous portion of the Earth’s surface, preferably larger than 5,000 km2, constituting a habitat in which human occupation has so changed multiple components of the environment that the quantity and quality of those uses and/or the well being of the population cannot be sustained, given feasible socio-economic and/or technological responses.” The authors compare this concept of criticality with other often used terms such as ‘fragility’, ‘resiliency’ and ‘buffering capacity’. Additionally, the book contains an important look at the history of pre-WWII land use in Borneo, and the destruction that resulted from early mining and logging interests. The book also devotes chapters to current land use practices of lowlands and settlers and contrasts those with the practices of ‘forest people’, usually defined as the ethnic minority groups that swidden. Besides offering the conclusion that Borneo has been a ‘resource frontier’ to the Malay and Indonesian states, the book offers little theoretical insight. (Author)

Brosius, JP (1990). After Duwagan: Deforestation, Succession and Adaptation in Upland Luzon, Philippines. Ann Arbor, Michigan Studies of South and Southeast Asia No. 2.

Brosius explores the two poles of perception about swidden agriculture in a study of the upland Philippines: the romantic concept of swidden as replicating the ecological structure of forests, and the opposition idea that swidden is the chief cause of the destruction of tropical forests. In the upland Philippines, the three main causes of disturbance are swiddening, logging and burning. Within the swiddening system, Brosius addresses how succession is hindered or helped by human manipulation of vegetation through five practices: weeding, planting, types of corps, spacing of crops and length of cultivation. Of particular interest is the transformation to New World crops: sweet potatoes, cassava and corn, indicating that swiddening is highly adaptive to outside events and environmental changes. For the context of his interest in disturbance, Brosius says that the disturbance due to swiddening can be summarized as of variable frequency, in small scales, and of high intensity, while burning is of high frequency, low intensity and on a large scale. In concludes that the “present Ayta adaptation represents an adjustment to marked environmental degradation, as can be inferred from historical, ecological and other evidence. The process has of course been reciprocal; clearly much of this environmental change which has occurred is the result of Ayta activity...By creating and maintaining a less mature environment the Ayta have established an economically more productive habitat”. (P.McElwee)

Brosius, JP (1991). “Foraging in tropical rain forests: the case of the Penan of Sarawak, East Malaysia (Borneo).” Human Ecology 19(2): 123-149.

Bailey et al. (1989) and Headland (1987) have recently proposed hypotheses stating that human foragers are unable to live in undisturbed tropical rain forests without some reliance on cultivated foods. The present discussion considers these hypotheses, as well as some of the evidence by which they have been tested. Four conceptual problems in the way these hypotheses have been formulated are identified: (1) assumptions about the relationship between key features of tropical forest ecosystems and human subsistence potential, (2) inconsistencies in the definition of "pure foraging," (3) adherence to a dichotomy between foraging and agriculture, the result being that conscious and unconscious effects of exploitation on the demographic parameters of key resources is ignored, and (4) problems in defining the significance of ecotones. I consider the case of Penan hunter-gatherers of Borneo, a population which, by virtue of their reliance on the sago palm Eugeissona utilis, contradicts the conclusions of Bailey et al. and Headland. I consider salient aspects of Penan reliance on Eugeissona, and describe how Penan exploitation of this resource may positively effect its availability. This case is seen to provide a challenge to the hypotheses of Bailey et al. and Headland, not only in the extent to which it contradicts their conclusions but, more significantly, in what it reveals about the assumptions upon which their hypotheses are based. This points to the need for greater precision in the definition of future hypotheses about foraging in tropical forests. (Journal)

Brosius, JP (1996). Prior transcripts, divergent paths: resistance and acquiescence to logging in Sarawak, East Malaysia. Manuscript.

Brosius explores why Penan in Sarawak have reacted with different strategies to excess logging in their territories. He argues that “the Penan” are not a homogenous group, and thus some Penan have protested logging companies while others have worked for them. He says that this must be seen in the light of a separation between the Penan into Western Penan and Eastern Penan, two groups with little in common and little cross-group affiliations. He argues that there are two main differences between the two Penan groups that account for their different reactions to logging: cultural differences and historical differences. Brosius says that the larger group/band size of the Western Penan and their longer history of settlements means that they are more likely to seek cooperation with loggers, while the Eastern Penan are smaller in number and more nomadic. Historically, the Eastern Penan had more positive contact with colonial administrations, and are now more likely to be influenced by Western environmentalists in the area urging them to protest against timber companies. (P.McElwee)

Brosius, JP (1997). “Endangered forest, endangered people: Eenvironmentalist representations of indigenous knowledge.” Human Ecology 25(1): 47-69.

Since 1987, Penan foragers in Malaysia have been increasingly affected by the activities of logging companies, and have protested this with blockades. Simultaneously, they have become the focus of a broad-based international environmental campaign. This paper examines the rhetoric of that campaign. In particular; I examine the ways in which Western environmentalists have constructed Penan land rights with reference to Penan knowledge of the landscape and of the biotic elements which exist there. Further I consider how environmentalists have drawn on ethnographic accounts, and how those accounts are transformed in the process of generating images deployed in the campaign. (Journal)

Brown, N (1998). “Out of control: fires and forestry in Indonesia.” Trends in Evolution and Ecology 13(1).

Brown, N and M Press (1992). “Logging rainforests the natural way.” New Scientist March 14: 25-29.

Bryant, RL (1994). “Fighting over the forests: political reform, peasant resistance and the transformation of forest management in late colonial Burma.” Journal of the Commonwealth and Comparative Politics 32(2): 244-260.

Bryant, RL (1994). “Fighting over the forests: political reform, peasant resistance and the transformation of forest management in late colonial Burma.” Journal Of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 32(2): 244-260.

Bryant, RL (1994). “From laissez-faire to scientific forestry: Forest management in early colonial Burma 1826-85.” Forest and Conservation History 38(4): 160-170.

Bryant, RL (1994). “Shifting the cultivator: the politics of teak regeneration in colonial Burma.” Modern Asian Studies 28(2): 225-250.

Bryant, RL (1996). Asserting sovereignty through resource exploitation: forest management on the Thai-Burmese border. in Resources, nations and indigenous peoples. R Howitt, J Connell and P Hirsch, Ed. Sydney, Oxford University Press.

Bryant, RL (1996). “Romancing colonial forestry: the discourse of 'forestry as progress' in British Burma.” The Geographical Journal 162(2): 169-178.

Recent research in political ecology highlights the central role played by the colonial state in tropical forest management, but little attention has been given as yet to the discursive representation of that role. This paper thus investigates the ways in which colonial foresters represented their work through books, articles and official reports. Using colonial Burma as a case study, the key elements of a discourse of 'forestry as progress) are delineated. In emphasizing the pre-eminence of teak extraction, forest revenue and forest conservation measures, however, colonial foresters failed to address in their writing other themes which would have called into question the 'progressive' image of colonial forestry. By way of illustration, the neglected dimension of political conflict between colonizer and colonized over forest management is briefly reviewed. Both the illegal 'everyday resistance' of peasants and the legal political opposition of Burmese politicians underscored that the colonial discourse of forestry as progress - in part or in whole was unacceptable to the vast majority of the Burmese population. Yet the attractiveness of this discourse to states in the tropics persists even today as foresters continue to extoll the 'non-political' commercialized nature of contemporary forestry as part of a broader attempt to counter growing popular opposition to state forest control. (SSCI)

Bryant, RL (1997). The Political Ecology of Forestry in Burma, 1824-1994. London, Hurst & Company.

Bryant, RL (1998). The politics of forestry in Burma. in The Politics of Environment in Southeast Asia. P Hirsch and C Warren, Ed. London, Routledge.

Bryant, RL, J Rigg, et al. (1993). “Forest transformations and political ecology in Southeast Asia.” Global Ecological and Biogeographical Letter 3(4-6): 101-111.

Burgers, P (1993). “Rainforest and rural economy.” Sarawak Museum Journal 44: 1-65.

Byron, RN and MA Quintos (1988). Log export restrictions and forest industries development in Southeast Asia (1975-1986): a case of the Philippines. in Changing Tropical Forests: Historical Perspectives on Today's Challenges in Asia, Australasia and Oceania. J Dargavel, K Dixon and N Semple, Ed.

Caldicott, J (1988). “A variable management system for the hill forests of Sarawak, Malaysia.” Journal of Tropical Forest Science 1(2): 103-113.

Caniago, I and S Siebert (1998). “Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia.” Economic Botany 52(3): 229-250.

Carandang, AP (1994). Market analysis for small scale MPTs production. in Marketing of Multipurpose Tree Products in Asia. JB Raintree and HA Francisco, Ed. Bangkok, Winrock International: 23-38.

Chin, SC (1989). “Managing Malaysia's forests for sustained production.” Wallaceana 55-56: 1-11.

Cobban, JL (1968). “The traditional use of the forests in mainland Southeast Asia.” Athens OH University Center for International Studies, Paper in International Studies, Southeast Asia series no 5,.

Colchester, M (1994). “Sustaining the forests: the community-based approach in South and South-east Asia.” Development and Change 25(1): 69-100.

The concept of sustainability emphasizes four basic principles when applied to rural communities: that basic needs must be met; that resources should be subject to local control; that local communities must have a decisive voice in planning; and that they should represent themselves through their own institutions. These principles have been notionally accepted by development planners and conservationists at all levels. Yet, throughout the tropical forest belt, they are being systematically overridden by international and national policies and development programmes, leading to increasing poverty, social conflict and rapid deforestation. Traditional knowledge and systems of land use have proved far more environmentally appropriate, resilient and complex than initially supposed by outsiders. Forest peoples have successfully opposed many socially and environmentally destructive development schemes proposed for their lands. However, these societies are not resisting all change: population increase and the internal dynamic for development have also created social and environmental problems. A review of community-based initiatives in South and South-East Asia shows that in some countries, positive initiatives have been taken by local and national governments to promote a community-based approach. Notable successes have been achieved but many other initiatives have failed. The examples show that, besides the four principles noted above, environmentally successful management also depends on innovative political organization at the community level. (Journal)

Colfer, C (1981). “Women, men and time in the forests of East Kalimantan.” Borneo Research Bulletin 13: 75-85.

Colfer, C (1997). Beyond Slash and Burn: Building on Indigenous Management of Borneo's Tropical Rain Forests. New York, New York Botanic Garden.

Condominas, G (1977). We Have Eaten the Forest. London, Allen Lane.

Despite the title, the books deals little with the forested uplands of Vietnam where the Mnong Gar people live. Rather, Condominas is more interested in the minute details of the ritual life of the village in which he lived for a year in 1948. Rituals for burial, village cleansing, marriages, births, paddy harvest and headmen’s initiation are described. However, the work’s detailed look at ritual and social interactions leaves out the everyday lives of villagers. We do not know what they plant in their swiddens besides paddy, we do not know who performs what labor in the village, and other crucial details of life. (P. McElwee)

Conelly, W (1985). “Copal and rattan collecting in the Philippines.” Economic Botany 39(1): 39-46.

Cornista, LB and EF Escueta (1990). Communal forest leases as a tenurial option in the Philippine uplands. in Keepers of the Forest. M Poffenberger, Ed. Washington, Kumarian Press.

Darlington, S (1998). “The ordination of a tree: the Buddhist ecology movement in Thailand.” Ethnology 37(1): 1-15.

deBeer, J (1993). Non-wood forest products in Indochina. Rome, FAO Working Paper.

deJong, W (1997). “Developing swidden agriculture and the threat of biodiversity loss.” Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 62(2-3): 187-197.

Indonesia has the world's third largest area of tropical forest. These forests are treasured for their high biodiversity, a result of the country's unique geographic positioning, but also as an economically important natural resource. Although the early decades of accelerated timber exploitation in Indonesia demonstrated little concern for the sustainability of forest resources, recently a shift to genuine conservationist forest policies can be observed. These new policies, however, mainly relate to the forestry sector and much less to the ongoing conflicts between the state and forest-dependent people. It is still a commonly held belief that swidden agriculturists are responsible for about half of Indonesia's annual deforestation. In order to solve this problem the country has defined a number of measures that attempt to convert swidden agriculturists into sedentary cultivators. In this paper these measures are discussed, and they are juxtaposed to new insights on the nature of the dynamics of swidden agriculture and the role that forest management plays in this agricultural method. The official schemes only propose some sort of plantation development, which significantly reduces biodiversity in the agricultural landscape. With an example of swidden agriculture from West Kalimantan, including it's important forest management component, this paper demonstrates that developing such existing agriculture-forest management holds the potential to bring economic development to the region, while biodiversity is conserved. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.

Dinerstein, E, E Wikramanayake, et al. (1995). Conserving the reservoirs and remnants of tropical moist forest in the Indo-pacific region. in Ecology, Conservation and Management of Southeast Asian Rainforests. R Primack and T Lovejoy, Ed. New Haven, Yale University Press.

Doedens, A, G Persoon, et al. (1995). “The relevance of ethnicity in the depletion and management of forest resources in Northeast Luzon, Philippines.” Sojourn 10(2): 259-279.

Doornewaard, J (1992). Religious role of trees and forests in South and Southeast Asia: an inventory of religious tree species and types of forests, and their possible contribution to forestry development projects. Wageningen, BOS Document no 15, Foundation BOS.

Dove, M (1983). “Theories of swidden agriculture, and the political economy of ignorance.” Agroforestry Systems 1: 85-99.

Dove, M (1990). “Socio-political aspects of home gardens in Java.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 21(2): 155-163.

Dove, M (1993). “Smallholder rubber and swidden agriculture in Borneo: a sustainable adaptation to the ecology and economy of the tropical forest.” Economic Botany 47(2): 136-147.

This is a study of the role of Para rubber cultivation in a system of swidden agriculture in Indonesian Borneo. Such smallholdings produce most of Indonesia's rubber, which is the country's largest agricultural generator of foreign exchange. Rubber integrates well into Bornean systems of swidden agriculture: the comparative ecology and economy of Para rubber and upland swidden rice result in minimal competition in the use of land and labor--and even in mutual enhancement--between the two systems. Rubber occupies a distinct niche in the farm economy: it meets the need for market goods, while the swidden meet subsistence needs. The intensity of production on these small-holdings is, as a result, characteristically low (and may even vary inversely with market prices). This reflects the independence of these smallholders from external economic and political influences, which has been the key to their historical success. The special virtues of such "composite systems" merit greater attention by development planners. (Source)

Dove, M (1995). “Political vs. techno-economic factors in the development of non-timber forest products: Lessons from a comparison of natural and cultivated rubbers in Southeast Asia.” Society and Natural Resources 8(3): 193-208.

An outstanding historic example of development of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) involves the transition among the forest dwellers of Indonesia early this century, from gathering native forest rubbers to cultivating Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), introduced from South America. The dynamics of this transition bring into question one of the key premises of current research on NTFPs, that the challenges to this development are largely technical and economic. Analysis of this transition and comparative data from South America suggest that the most important issue in NTFP development is not the size or efficiency of the return but rather who receives it. This analysis can contribute to a politically more informed analysis of the contemporary development of NTFPs and to improved understanding of relations between forest-dwelling peoples and the broader societies in which they live. (SSCI)

Dove, M (1998). “Living rubber, dead land, and persisting systems in Borneo: indigenous representations of sustainability.” Bijgragen 154(1): 1-35.

Dove, M and D Kammen (1997). “The epistemology of sustainable resource use: Managing forest products, swiddens, and high-yielding variety crops.” Human Organization 56(1): 91- 101.

Dove, MR (1993). “Uncertainty, humility and adaptation to the tropical forest: the agricultural augury of the Kantu'.” Ethnology 32(2): 145-167.

Dove, MR (1994). “Transition from native forest rubbers to Hevea brasiliensis among tribal smallholders in Borneo.” Economic Botany 48(4): 382-296.

This is a study of the historic transition in Southeast Asia, in particular Borneo, from the exploitation of native forest rubbers to Para rubber (Hevea brasiliensis, Euphorbiaceae). During the second half of the nineteenth century, booming international markets subjected forest rubbers to more intensive and competitive exploitation. At the same time, the settlement patterns of tribal rubber gatherers were becoming more sedentary and their agriculture more intensive. Hevea spp. was better suited to these changed circumstances than the native forest rubbers, largely because it was cultivated not naturally grown. The status of Hevea spp. in Southeast Asia as a cultigen, as opposed to a natural forest product, and the political-economic implications of this helps to explain the contrasting histories of smallholder rubber producers in the New and Old Worlds. This study offers an historical perspective on current debates regarding relations between forest resources, forest peoples, and the state (SSCI)

Dove, MR (1996). “Rice-eating rubber and people-eating governments: peasant versus state critiques of rubber development in colonial Borneo.” Ethnohistory 43(1): 33-63.

Two remarkable events took place in the 1930s in Borneo: a myth spread among the tribal societies of the interior, warning them that the introduced Para rubber tree was hostile to their swidden rice; and the International Rubber Regulation Agreement was established, in an attempt to protect plantation rubber production by restricting smallholder production through export duties and other measures. A comparative analysis of these two interlinked events makes the tribal dream look less fantastic and the international regulation look less rational than they otherwise do. This analysis contributes to current debates about the peasant tendency to differentiate the production of food crops and cash crops, the scholarly failure to link local and global histories, and the anthropological failure to integrate symbolic and political-economic studies. (SSCI)

Dunn, FL (1975). Rain-Forest Collectors and Traders: A Study of Resource Utilization in Modern and Ancient Malaya. Kuala Lumpur, Monograph of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No 5.

Ellen, R and J Berstein (1994). “Urbs in rure: cultural transformations of the rainforest in modern Brunei.” Anthropology Today 10(4): 16-19.

Brunei has been able to conserve its extensive rainforest through emphasis on forest conservation, biodiversity management, & environmental protection, as well as through the financial backing of its gas & oil wealth. Only processed timber products may be exported. While the typical Third World pattern of movement from rural village to urban slum has not come to pass in Brunei, the movement of forest dwellers to urban apartments with good wages has resulted in a loss of traditional knowledge about the forest & the associated cultural meanings. A new cultural meaning of the forest is as a recreational resource, which is attractive to the middle & upper class Brunei citizens & the large expatriate community, & fits well with the Muslim view of the forest as the antithesis of culture. In addition to its cultural meaning as a recreational resource, to Brunei, the forest has scientific value as well as ecotourist potential (as a wildlife haven), & is a source of non timber forest products. (Copyright 1995, Sociological Abstracts, Inc., all rights reserved.)

FAO, Regional Forestry Extension Programme in Asia, et al. (1988). Planning Forestry Extension Programmes. Bangkok.

Flaherty, M and V Filipchuk (1993). “Forest management in northern Thailan: A rural Thai perspective.” Geoforum 24(3): 263-275.

Deforestation is considered to be one of Thailand's most pressing natural resource management problems. Critics of past management practices argue that protection policies have been ineffective because of inadequate attention to the needs and concerns of local people. This study compares the responses of men and women. The results show that men are quite involved, and that the genders do not differ in their perceptions of deforestation. (SSCI)

Flaherty, M and A Jengjalern (1995). “Differences in assessments of forest adequacy among women in northern Thailand.” Jounal of Developing Areas 29(2): 237-254.

Fox, J, Ed. (1995). Society and Non-timber Forest Products in Tropical Asia. Honolulu, East West Center Occasional Papers No 19.

Fox, J and A K (1997). “Forest-dweller demographics in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.” Environmental Conservation 24(1): 31-37.

Although the Government of Indonesia has good data on forest cover and population, it does not have data on how many people live on state-claimed forest land. The objective of this study was to assess the extent of this deficiency and to develop a methodology for overcoming it, based on field research in the province of West Kalimantan. The project retrieved and combined government data on forests and people, analysed their significance in terms of numbers of forest-dwelling people, compared these results with government estimates and an empirical field-check, and sought to explain why knowledge of forest dwellers on state-forest lands is problematic. Results suggest that 20 to 30% of the population of West Kalimantan (approximately 650000 to one million people) live on state-claimed forests. The main reason why it is difficult to determine how many people live on state-claimed forest lands is that a large number of villages remain unmapped and thus it is not possible to unite census data with forest boundaries in a spatially-precise manner. While the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry has not placed a high priority on determining how many people live on state-claimed forests, this study suggests that the lack of information on forest population densities is as much a consequence of the lack of information on village locations as it is a result of political or institutional interests. (Author)

Freeman, D (1955). Iban Agriculture: A Report on the Shifting Cultivation of Hill Rice by the Iban of Sarawak. London, HMSO.

Fretes, Yd (1992). Community versus company based rattan industry in Indonesia. in The Rainforest Harvest. S Counsell and T Rice, Ed. London, Friends of the Earth Trust.

Ganjanapan, S (1996). A comparative study of indigenous and scientific concepts in land and forest classification in northern Thailand. in Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand. P Hirsch, Ed. Bangkok, Silkworm Books.

Gillogly, KA and Nghiem Phuong Tuyen (1992). Cao Lan Culture and Biodiversity in Historical Context: Environmental Change among an Ethnic Minority of the Midlands of Northern Vietnam. Honolulu, East West Center, Indochina Initiative Working Paper Series No. 3.

Griffin, M (1996). “The cultural identity of foragers and the Agta of Palanan, Isabela, the Philippines.” Anthropos 91(1-3): 111-123.

Hirsch, P (1987). “Deforestation and development in Thailand.” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 8: 129-138.

Hirsch, P (1990). “Forests, forest reserve and forest land in Thailand.” Geographical Journal 156(2): 166-174.

Hirsch, P (1996). Introduction: Seeing forests for trees. in Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand. P Hirsch, Ed. Bangkok, Silkworm Books.

Hoare, P and S Larchrojna (1986). Change in traditional management of forests: a study of Thailand's Karen hill people. in Community forestry: Lessons from case studies in Asia and the Pacific region. YS Rao, Ed. Bangkok, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific: 165-188.

Hong, E (1987). Natives of Sarawak: Survival in Borneo's Vanishing Forests. Penang, Institut Masyarakat.

Hurst, P (1990). Rainforest Politics: Ecological Destruction in South-east Asia. London, Zed Books.

Ireson, C (1991). “Women's forest work in Laos.” Society and Natural Resources 4(1): 23-36.

Forest work is a significant part of the contribution of Lao rural women to the household economy. Women's forest work was studied by interviewing 120 rural women farmer/gatherers in eight villages in one province in central Laos. Women with access to old-growth forest as well as second-growth areas use forest products mainly for subsistence purposes, whereas women with access only to second-growth areas are more commercially oriented and are more likely to sell what they gather. Women's forest work in all cases contributes to the household economy and becomes even more important during poor crop years. It is suggested that women's forest activities, along with women's other work activities, foster their informal influence in household and village. (Journal)

Ireson, C and W Ireson (1996). Cultivating the forest: gender and the decline of wild resources among the Tay of Northern Vietnam. Honolulu, East West Center Working Paper No. 6.

Ireson, CJ (1996). Field, Forest, and Family: Women's Work and Power in Rural Laos. Boulder, Colo, Westview Press.

Jessup, T (1989). Minor Forest Products in the Apo Kayan: History, Trade and Ecology. Ph.D. Thesis. New Brunswick, Rutgers University.

Jessup, TC (1981). “Why do shifting cultivators move?” Borneo Research Bulletin 13: 16-32.

Jessup, TC and NL Peluso (1986). Minor forest products as common property resources in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Proceedings of the Conference on Common Property Resource Management, Washington, National Academy Press.

Jonsson, H (1998). “Forest products and peoples: upland groups, Thai polities, and regional space.” Sojourn 13(1): 1-37.

Kathirithamby-Wells, J (1995). Socio-political structures and the Southeast Asian ecosystem: an historical perspective up to the mid-nineteenth century. in Asian Perceptions of Nature: A Critical Approach. O Bruun and A Kalland, Ed. London, Curzon Press.

Kaye, L (1990). “Buddhist "greens' aim to oust Thailand's hilltribes of cabbages and cultures.” Far Eastern Economic Review 150(50): 35-37.

King, V (1996). Environmental change in Malaysian Borneo: fire, drought and rain. in Environmental Politics in Southeast Asia. R Bryant and M Parnwell, Ed. London, Routledge.

King, VT (1993). “Politick permbangunan: the political economy of rainforest exploitation and development in Sarawak, East Malaysia.” Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 3: 235-244.

Kummer, D (1992). “Upland agriculture, the land frontier, and forest decline in the Philippines.” Agroforestry Systems 18: 31-46.

Laarman, JG, E Stewart, et al. (1995). “The economics of extraction in Philippine forests: When timber turns to gold.” Mountain Research and Development 15(2): 153-164.

Lahjie, A and B Siebert (1988). “Honey gathering by people in the interior of East Kalimantan.” Bee World 71(4): 153-157.

Larmaan, J, E Stewart, et al. (1995). “The economics of extraction in Philippine forests - when timber turns to gold.” Mountain Research and Development 15(2): 153- 164.

The present analysis compares the income from harvesting timber and non-timber forest products in the Philippine uplands. It draws from detailed profiles of forests and communities in three cases: Paranas in a rugged hilly region of the Visayas islands, San Pablo at the base of the Sierra Madre mountains in northern Luzon, and Lianga Bay in a karstic region of eastern Mindanao. Each case represents an area where industrial timber concessions have recently ended and where second-growth forests have potential for community forestry. The matter of income generation is an empirical question varying with local circumstances. However, timber comprises a high proportion of forest assets and income potential in each of the three cases. In view of the private profitability of logging, a central issue is how to grant sensible timber cutting rights within a larger framework of forest protection and regeneration. Management planning addresses this by recommending against harvesting in areas above 1,200 m elevation, on slopes exceeding 50 percent, and in strips 20 m wide on each side of rivers and creeks. (Source)

Lawrence, D, M Leighton, et al. (1995). “Availability and extraction of forest products in managed and primary forest around a Dayak village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.” Conservation Biology 9(1): 76-88.

We examined the density and abundance of marketable products in managed forest (rubber gardens fruit gardens, and dry rice fallows) and in primary forest surrounding the Dayak village of Kembera, near Gunung Palung National Park, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. We calculated the proportion of trees that were marketable and useful for local consumption by counting and identifying trees in each managed forest type and we documented extraction of products through interviews. Villagers harvested four marketable tree products: tengkawang seeds (Shorea stenoptera), durian fruits (various Durio spp.), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), and timber, especially Bornean ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri). We inventoried trees at least 20 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) of marketed species from 0.4-ha plots in primary forest (n = 8) and from 0.1-ha plots in each managed forest type (n = 10-11). With the exception of timber the density of trees producing a marketable product was significantly higher in the forest type managed for that product than the density of the marketed species, or of similar wild species, in primary forest. Total abundance (product of density and available area) of durian and tengkawang wets greater in primary forest; however, villagers gathered these products only from mannged forest. We infer from this choice a greater efficiency of harvesting from trees in dense stands near the village. Historically, this choice resulted in deliberate development of fruit gardens in preference or in addition to gathering from the more distant; primary forest. Because of low product density in primary forest, extractive forest reserves or buffer zones designed to encourage the production of fruits such as tengkawang or durian may not provide a sufficient incentive for the protection of primary forest around Kembera and other Dayak villages near Gunung Palung National Park. (SSCI)

Lohmann, L (1991). “Who defends biological diversity? Conservation strategies and the case of Thailand.” Ecologist 21: 5-13.

Lohmann, L (1993). “Land, power and forest colonization in Thailand.” Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 3(4-6): 180-191.

This paper examines the social and political implications of deforestation and forest colonization in Thailand. After a brief history of forest colonization in the country, a study is made of the relationships between market economics and national development, and an assessment is made of the importance of these relationships for our understanding of the political ecology of Thailand. Detailed consideration is given to the emergence of land laws and their significance for colonization. The paper ends with a summary of the contrasting views of peasants, NGOs. and academics. (SSCI)

Lynch, O (1988). “Legal responses to the Philippine deforestation crisis.” Journal of International Law 20(3): 679-713.

Lynch, O and K Talbot (1995). Balancing acts: Community-based forest management and national law in Asia and the Pacific. Washington DC, World Resources Institute.

Mackie, C (1985). “Shifting cultivators and deforestation: the case of Borneo's forest fires.” Culture and Agriculture 25: 1-4.

Mackie, C (1986). The landscape ecology of traditional shifting cultivation in an upland Bornean rain forest. in Impact of Man's Activities on tropical Upland Forest EcosystemsEd. Selangor, Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry.

Mackinnon, J (1997). The forests of Thailand: strike up the ban? in Development or Domestication? Indigenous Peoples of Southeast Asia. D McCaskill and K Kampe, Ed. Bangkok, Silkworm Books.

Madigan, F (1987). “Where trees are fewer: attitudes on forest development of a forest dwelling people.” Philippines Sociological Review 35(1-2): 26-38.

Mary, F and G Michon (1987). “When agroforests drive back natural forests: a socio-economic analysis of a rice-agroforest system in Sumatra.” Agroforestry Systems 5: 27-55.

Michon, G and FM Michon (1994). “Conversion of traditional village gardens and new economic strategies of rural households in the area of Bogor Indonesia.” Agroforestry Systems 25(1): 31-58.

Olofson, H (1995). “Taboo and environment, Cebuano and Tagbanuwa: two cases of indigenous management of natural resources in the Philippines and their relation to religion.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 23(1): 20-34.

Padoch, C and N Peluso (1996). Borneo in Transition: People, Forests, Conservation and Development. Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press.

Padoch, C and C Peters (1993). Managed forest gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. in Perspectives on Biodiversity. CS Potter, JI Cohen and D Janczewski, Ed. Washington, AAAS.

Palmer, J (1990). “Forestry and land use in Sarawak (Response to Cramb 1990).” Borneo Research Journal 22: 42-43.

Panya, O (1992). “Farmer response to a grass-roots approach to forest management.” Pacific Viewpoint 33(2): 151-158.

Parnwell, MJG and DM Taylor (1996). Environmental degradation, non-timber forest products and Iban communities in Sarawak. in Environmental Change in South-East Asia. MJG Parwell and R Bryant, Ed. London, Routledge.

Peluso, N (1983). “Networking in the commons: a tragedy for rattan?” Indonesia 35: 95-108.

Peluso, N (1992). Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource Control and Resistance in Java. Berkeley, University of California.

Peluso, N (1992). “Traditions of forest control in Java - implications for social forestry and sustainability.” Natural Resources Journal 32(4): 883-918.

Ideally, social forestry programs and philosophies are intended to involve local people in the management and distribution of forest resources. In practice, the structures of social forestry programs are influenced by political, economic, and cultural factors at national and local levels. When social forestry programs entail the reallocation of access to forest resources on state lands, power relations are particularly influential. As the case of the Java Social Forestry Program illustrates, powerful social forces that have historically shaped the national forest management agency and the social structures of forest-based villages have distorted social forestry ideals. When their traditional management tools are unable to curb deforestation and the social processes causing deforestation, forestry agencies may be persuaded to implement social forestry policies. The natures of changes in forestry programs and the orientation of social forestry are inevitably subject to local negotiation and renegotiation. The outcomes of negotiation, however, are dependent on the structures of power relations both before and after implementation of new policies. (SSCI)

Peluso, N (1996). “Fruit trees and family trees in an anthropogenic forest: ethics of access, property zones, and environmental change in Indonesia.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 38(3): 510-548.

Peluso, N, P Vandergeest, et al. (1995). “Social aspects of forestry in Southeast Asia: a review of postwar trends in the scholarly literature.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 26(1): 196-218.

Peluso, NL (1992). “The ironwood problem: (Mis) management and development of an extractive rainforest product.” Conservation Biology 6(2): 210-219.

This study explores the reasons that national and local forest management systems have failed to protect local supplies of ironwood occurring in the dipterocarp forests of West Kalimantan, Indonesia Government management strategies have bypassed local people's claims to ironwood because customary forest management institutions have not been formally recognized and supported. Traditional iron-wood management focused on the regulation of outsiders' access to the trees and an informal "ethic of access" guiding its use and distribution among village households. Kalimantan forest management is now dominated by industrial timber extraction. The government bas given timber companies the rights to control all forest activities within their concession areas, but companies have little incentive or capacity to manage the activities of numerous villages within their concession territories. Yet the indirect effects of logging on village forest management have bad a staggering impact on the social organization of forest use. The penetration of roads bas facilitated outsiders' access to formerly remote areas. Chainsaws and logging roads have facilitated villagers' commercial harvest of iron wood and generated changes in the villagers' management of the wood Private control bas taken precedence over common (village) controls, and the ethic of access has been transformed The article concludes that some traditional institutions could be empowered by the state to protect both forest resources and local claims in a joint forest management arrangement. (SSCI)

Peluso, NL (1992). “The political ecology of extraction and extractive reserves in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.” Development and Change 23(4): 49-74.

Peluso, NL (1992). The rattan trade in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. in Non-timber Products From Tropical Forests: Evaluation of a Conservation and Development Strategy. D Nepstad and S Schwartzmann, Ed. New York, Institute for Economic Botany. 9: 115-128.

Peluso, NL (1995). “Whose woods are these? Counter-mapping forest territories in Kalimantan, Indonesia.” Antipode 27(4): 383-406.

This paper examines the politics of land and forest rights in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). Forest mapping by government forestry planners allocates rights of resource use and land access according to forest types and economic objectives, only rarely recognizing indigenous occupancy rights or forest territories customarily claimed or managed by local people. As maps and official plans based on them ignore, and in some cases criminalize, traditional rights to forest, forest products, and forest land for temporary conversion to swidden agriculture, indigenous activists are using sketch maps to re-claim territories - a process that requires re-defining many traditional forest rights. The paper considers the political implications of mapping and the implications of a focus on land use rather than forest use. (SSCI)

Peluso, NL and M Poffenberger (1989). “Social forestry in Java: reorienting management systems.” Human Organization 48(4): 333-344.

Poffenberger, M (1990). Joint Management of Forest Lands. Jakarta, Ford Foundation Programme Statement.

Poffenberger, M, Ed. (1990). Keepers of the Forest: Land Management Alternatives in Southeast Asia. West Hartford, Kumarian Press.

Poffenberger, M (1992). The Importance of Sustainability, Effectiveness, and Equity in Community Forest Management. Sustainable and effective management systems for community forestry: Proceedings of a workshop Jan. 15-17, 1992 RECOFTC Report 9, Bangkok.

Potter, L (1987). Degradation, innovation, and social welfare in the Riam Kiwa Valley, Kalimantan, Indonesia. in Land Degradation and Society. P Blaikie and H Brookfield, Ed. London, Methuen: 164-176.

Primack, R and T Lovejoy, Eds. (1995). Ecology, Conservation and Management of Southeast Asian Rainforests. New Haven, Yale University Press.

Raintree, JB and HA Francisco (1994). Marketing of Multipurpose Tree Products in Asia. Proceedings of an International Workshop held in Baguio City, Philippines, 6-9 Dec. 1993, Winrock International.

Rambo, AT (1979). “Primitive man's impact on genetic resources of the Malaysian tropical rain forest.” Malaysian Applied Biology Journal 8(1).

Rambo, T (1985). Primitive Polluters: Semang Impact on the Malaysian Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystem. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, Museum of Anthropology.

Rambo argues that all human societies cause environmental change and that such change is the inevitable consequence of the functioning of human social systems rather than a reflection of any particular cultural values regarding human interactions with nature. He is directly trying to refute arguments made by anthropologists that ‘primitive’ peoples live in more harmony with their environment than ‘civilized’ societies. He argues that human relations with nature are a result of the operation of the whole ‘cultural systems’ which includes the interactions between population, technology, social structure and values. Rambo concludes that the Semang have a large impact on the environment from air pollution from fires and cigarettes, changed forest conditions caused by swiddening, water pollution from soil runoff, etc. etc. His conclusions are backed up by shoddy ecological data that indicate next to nothing (ambient air temperatures between a cleared settlement and the forest are different, thereby indicating the settlement has caused environmental ‘change’. (P. McElwee)

Regpala, M (1990). Resistance in the cordillera: a Philippine tribal people's historical response to invasion and change imposed from outside. in Tribal Peoples and Development in Southeast Asia. LT Ghee and AG Gomes, Ed. Kuala Lumpur, University of Malaya.

Reid, A (1995). “Humans and forests in pre-colonial Southeast Asia.” Environment and History 1(1): 93-110.

Rice, D (1994). Marketing multi-purpose tree products: The Ikalahan experience. in Marketing of Multipurpose Tree Products in Asia: Proceedings of an International Workshop held in Baguio City, Philippines, 6-9 Dec. 1993. J Raintree and H Francisco, Ed. Bangkok, Winrock International: 335-340.

Rigg, J and R Jerndal (1996). Plenty in the context of scarcity: Forest management in Laos. in Environmental Change in South-East Asia. MJG Parwell and R Bryant, Ed. London, Routledge.

Roder, W (1997). “Slash and burn rice systems in transition: Challenges for agricultural development in the hills of Northern Laos.” Mountain Research and Development 17(1): 1-10.

Roder explains why swidden agriculture is still being practiced in highland Laos despite attempts to make swiddeners settle down and practice wet-rice agriculture. He notes that the attempt to settle the swiddens is not new, and cites French sources from the 1920s worrying about soil fertility under swidden systems. He says that attempts to link certain ethnic groups of certain swidden practices (as is often done in neighboring Thailand) does not work well in Laos, which has a mix of ethnic groups, who often swidden more according to local land capability, climate, population size and past political events, rather than an essentialist ethnic identity. He concludes that lack of alternatives, rather than high productivity or return to labor, is the main reason why people continue to swidden. People cannot risk the long term investments in terracing and preparing fields for rice. Government help with wet rice agriculture is not extended to the marginalized people of the hills, and lowland Lao people benefit disproportionately to government development schemes. He argues that people in the upland do have a comparative advantage when it comes to timber and livestock production, and those could be subsidized if the government wanted to help upland peoples. (P. McElwee)

Safran, E and RA Godoy (1993). “Effects of government policies on smallholder palm cultivation: an example from Borneo.” Human Organization 52(3): 294-298.

Salafsky, N (1994). “Forest gardens in the Gunung Palung region of West Kalimantan, Indonesia: defining a locally-developed, market-oriented agroforestry system.” Agroforestry Systems 28(3): 237-268.

Salafsky, N, BL Dugelby, et al. (1993). “Can extractive reserves save the rainforest?” Conservation Biology 7(1): 39-52.

Sam, DD (1994). Shifting Cultivation in Vietnam: Its Social, Economic, and Environmental Values Relative to Alternative Land Use. London, International Institute for Environment and Development.

Sather, C (1990). “Trees and tree tenure in Paku Iban society: The management of secondary forest resources in a long established Iban community.” Borneo Review 1(1): 16-40.

Savage, M (1994). “Land-use change and the structural dynamics of Pinus kesiya in a hill evergreen forest in northern Thailand.” Mountain Research and Development 14(3): 245-250.

This study describes changes occurring in a stand of Pinus kesiya in hill evergreen forest adjacent to a new settlement of tribal people in the Doi Inthanon mountain region of northern Thailand. These forests are increasingly experiencing chronic human impacts as tribal people are settled permanently at one site by government programs which encourage the cultivation of cash crops in place of opium. Results from age stand structure analysis suggest that two factors, human-set fires and kindling stick harvesting, are now severely affecting the age distribution of Pinus kesiya in the mixed pine and evergreen hardwood forest. (SSCI)

Siebert, SF (1990). “Hillside farming, soil erosion and forest conversion in two southeast Asian national parks.” Mountain Research and Development 10(1): 64-72.

Siebert, SF and J Belsky (1985). “Forest product trade in a lowland Filipino Village.” Economic Botany 39(4): 522-533.

Siriat, M, S Prasodjo, et al. (1994). “Mapping customary land in East Kalimantan, Indonesia: a tool for forest management.” Ambio 23(7): 411-417.

Effective forest management requires balancing conservation and local economic-development objectives. This project demonstrated a method for mapping customary land-use systems using oral histories, sketch maps, and GPS and GIS methodologies. These maps can form the basis of talks for identifying customary forest-tenure boundaries in order to assess how indigenous ways of organizing and allocating space might support or conflict with the objectives of forest protection, for evaluating different means of coordinating indigenous resource-management systems with government-instituted systems of management, and as a basis for formal legal recognition and protection of customary forest-tenure arrangements. The constraints on this process include the accuracy of the base maps, the ability of social scientists and mapmakers to accurately capture the complex relationships of traditional resource-management systems on maps, and the political will of the parties involved for recognizing different forms of land rights. (Journal)

Stewart, T (1992). “Land-use options to encourage forest conservation on a tribal reservation in the Philippines.” Agroforestry Systems 18: 225-244.

Stockdale, M and B Ambrose, Eds. (1998). Mapping and NFTP inventory: New participatory methods for forest dwelling communities in East Kalimantan. Recent Approaches to Participatory Forest Resource Assessment. London, Overseas Development Institute.

Sunderlin, W (1997). “An ex-post methodology for measuring poor people's participation in social forestry: an example from Java, Indonesia.” Agroforestry Systems 37(3): 297-310.

One of the key goals of social forestry is to involve the poor as project beneficiaries. It is possible to measure the degree of attainment of this goal by collecting socioeconomic data before and after project implementation. This approach cannot be applied at the many sites where ex-ante data were never gathered. This article proposes a methodology for evaluating the degree of inclusion of the poor in social forestry using ex-post data alone. Longitudinal analysis is approximated through the use of 'slow change' socioeconomic variables and through logistic regression. The methodology is illustrated with data on the Java Social forestry Program. (SSCI)

Suryanata, K (1994). “Fruit trees under contract: tenure and land use change in upland Java, Indonesia.” World Development 22(10): 1567-1578.

Swingland, IR (1993). “The ecology of stability in Southeast Asia forests: biodiversity and common resource property.” Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters 3(4-6): 290-296.

It is clear that for decades the traditional, confrontational method of dealing with conflicts in interests over natural resources does not resolve problems. Most methods rely on one party or another fulfilling undertakings which can easily be broken without any framework of checks and balances which ensure consistency and homeostasis. At least two difficulties exist to providing a better basis for resolving conflict; some jurisprudence framework derived from natural sciences and socioeconomics concerning common resource property, and a clearer understanding of the definition of biodiversity. The absence of a decision-making environmental framework for resolving conflicts between environmental 'stakeholders', benefitting all parties, means that any conservation or sustainable use of natural resources will always be corrupted and fail. Moreover the way in which biodiversity is defined changes planning priorities. This chapter offers an insight into both the problems and possible solutions of biodiversity management, or conservation, and common resource property disputes. (Journal)

Tantra, IGM (1990). Customary law and village forest management, Bali. Social forestry in Indonesia, Field document #25. Jakarta, RWEDPA.

Thapa, G (1998). “Issues in the conservation and management of forests in Laos: the case of Sangthong District.” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 19(1): 71-91.

Amidst the increasing concern about steadily depleting forests in Laos, this paper examines its causes and existing forest management systems in Sangthong District. Forests in Sangthong were virtually undisturbed until the early 1970s. Guided by customary law, a relatively small local population utilised the forest sustainably for food, fodder, wood fuel and construction materials. Subsequently the government effectively abolished customary law through the declaration of forests as state property and the sanctioning of logging. Logging was banned in the early 1990s but forest degradation continues as a result of ongoing logging, the open access to forests, the government policy of utilising degraded forests for agriculture, and population pressure from in-migration. Village surveys show that local people appreciate ecological and economic values of forest resources and are willing to contribute to their management. These social qualities lay the foundation of a sustainable forest management system, but the evolution of this type of system has been prevented by the "open access" to forest resources. For effective forest conservation a management strategy focused on property rights reform, public participation and integrated rural development is proposed. (Source)

Thiollay, J (1995). “The role of traditional agroforests in the conservation of rain forest bird diversity in Sumatra.” Conservation Biology 9(2): 335-353.

Tiyavanich, K (1997). Forest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth Century Thailand. Honolulu, U. Hawaii Press.

vandenTop, GM (1998). Deforestation of the northern Sierra Madre. in Environmental Challenges in South-East Asia. VT King, Ed. Surrey, UK, Curzon Press.

Vandergeest, P (1996). “Mapping nature: state territorialization of rights to the forest in Thailand.” Society and Natural Resources 9: 159-175.

In Thailand, as elsewhere, the administrative definition of forest has changed from one based on classification by species to one based on territory. This process was an important facet of the more general process by which the central government claimed a monopoly on the administration of property rights to natural resources. The process took place in three stages: First, the government declared that all territory not claimed by permanent cultivators or other government agencies was forest under the jurisdiction of the

Royal Forestry Department. Second, it demarcated the forests into reserve and protected forests. Third, it mapped all forest land as well as nonforest land according to land use classifications, which became the basis for policies to control occupation and use. These strategies did not allow for local input into land use planning. As a result of this lack of state capacity, and interbureaucratic competition, the Thai government failed to control rural land use. (SSCI)

Vo Quy and Le Thac Can (1994). “Conservation of forest resources and the greater biodiversity of Vietnam.” Asian Journal of Environment Management 2(2).

Walters, B (1997). “Human ecological questions for tropical restoration: experiences from planting native upland trees and mangroves in the Philippines.” Forest Ecology and Management 99(1-2): 275-290.

There has been relatively little social science input into the study and practice of ecological restoration. This shortcoming is examined with particular reference to restoration work in the Philippines involving the planting of native upland forest and coastal mangrove trees in a densely populated and highly degraded, coastal watershed. Experiences here revealed that social and economic factors, including peoples' knowledge about trees and tree planting, their patterns of land use and ownership, and their social organization, interacted with ecological variables to affect differently the outcomes of restoration work. In fact, socio-economic factors were more important, by and large, than ecological factors in determining the relative success of restoration efforts between and within different sites. This paper concludes with a discussion and proposal for the inclusion of socio-economic or 'human ecological' factors and concerns when planning and implementing tropical restoration projects. These variables are presented as a series or checklist of questions that restorationists can use to guide their efforts. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.

Whitten, A (1987). “Indonesia's transmigration program and its role in the loss of tropical rain forest.” Conservation Biology 1: 239-246.

Wood, H and WHH Mellink, Eds. (1992). Sustainable and Effective Management Systems for Community Forestry: Proceedings of a Workshop, Bangkok, Jan. 15-17 1992. Bangkok, Regional Community Forestry Training Center (RECOFTC).

IRRIGATION/WATERSHED:

Attwater, R (1996). Watershed management in Phetchabun, Thailand: local stakeholders and the institutional environment. in Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand. P Hirsch, Ed. Bangkok, Silkworm Books.

Belsky, J and S Siebert (1983). “Household responses to drought in two subsistence Leyte villages.” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 11: 237-256.

FAO (1984). Participatory Experiences in Irrigation Water Management: Proceedings of the Expert Consultation on Irrigation Water Management. Expert consultation on irrigation water management, Yogyakarta and Bali, Indonesia, Government of Indonesia, FAO, USAID.

Ireson, W (1995). “Village irrigation in Laos - traditional patterns of common property resource management.” Society and Natural Resources 8(6): 541-558.

Many lowland Lao villages manage traditional paddy rice irrigation systems constructed of local materials. The process of securing agreement to construct such a system, as well as the patterns of mobilizing farmers for operations and maintenance, illustrate the relevance of the Assurance Problem model for understanding collective behavior in managing common property resources. Household cooperation and compliance with irrigation system rules is not isolated behavior, but must be understood in the context of village norms of mutual assistance, social support, and decision-making by consensus. Comparing Lao patterns of regulating access to other natural resources with successful and unsuccessful irrigation systems suggests the limits of successful common property management, and the situations in which it is likely to occur. (Journal)

Ireson, W (1996). “Invisible walls: village identity and the maintenance of cooperation in Laos.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 27(2): 219-.

Lansing, S (1991). Priests and Programmers: Technologies of Power in the Engineered Landscapes of Bali. Princeton, Princeton University Press.

LAND TENURE/PROPERTY RIGHTS/COMMONS:

Brown, P and H Brookfield (1990). “Land tenure and transfer in Chimbu, Papua New Guinea: 1958-1984 - A study in continuity and change, accommodation and opportunism.” Human Ecology 18(1): 21-49.

Christensen, SR and A Rabibhadana (1994). “Exit, voice, and the depletion of open access resources: the political bases of property rights in Thailand.” Law and Society Review 28( 3): 639-655.

Part of a special issue on law and society in Southeast Asia. Although the depletion of the open land frontier in Thailand has led to demands for innovations in the formal legal order governing access to land, it has not led to the development of a strong central state. A discrepancy between legal rules and customary practices prevailed when an open land frontier allowed people to avoid conflict by moving away. This discrepancy has been maintained by the lack of a landed aristocracy combined with the existence of institutional factors that prevent the state from providing formal rule enforcement for the population. In the mid 1980s, the Royal Forestry Department drafted a new policy to promote commercial tree plantations. Since than, conflicts over forest reserves have increased, centering on the preservation and management of so called community forests, on squatters who refuse to vacate the reserves, and on the commercial tree plantations. (Econlit)

Cleary, M and P Eaton (1996). Traditional and Reform: Land Tenure and Rural Development in South-East Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press.

Cornista, LB and EF Escueta (1990). Communal forest leases as a tenurial option in the Philippine uplands. in Keepers of the Forest. M Poffenberger, Ed. Washington, Kumarian Press.

Cramb, RA and IR Wills (1990). “The role of traditional institutions in rural development: community-based land tenure and government land policy in Sarawak, Malaysia.” World Development 18(3): 3470360.

The authors discuss the political ecology of Iban land use and rights in Sarawak. They ground their discussion of rural land policy in a historical discussion of traditional land rights and the conflicts with the state and then national government which sought to establish individual and community land titles that did not necessarily correlate with traditional use systems. The authors also provide an informal survey of current Iban settlements and their satisfaction with assorted government land development schemes. The authors note the ironies of Sarawak, as a developing state, taking a Western model of land titling (dominated by individual private property rights) that evolved in Europe from commons law, the very system Sarawak was hoping to replace. The fact that the Iban were fairly sedentary forest fallow dwellers led to conflicts between their customary use rights and state claims. (P.McElwee)

Dearden, P, S Chettamart, et al. (1998). “Protected areas and property rights in Thailand: comment.” Environmental Conservation 25(3): 195-197.

Li, TM (1996). “Images of community: discourse and strategy in property relations.” Development and Change 27(3): 501- 527.

This article argues that divergent images of community result not from inadequate knowledge or confusion of purpose, but from the location of discourse and action in the context of specific struggles and dilemmas. It supports the view that 'struggles over resources' are also 'struggles over meaning'. It demonstrates the ways in which contests over the distribution of property are articulated in terms of competing representations of community at a range of levels and sites. It suggests that, through the exercise of 'practical political economy', particular representations of community can be used strategically to strengthen the property claims of potentially disadvantaged groups. In the policy arena, advocates for 'community based resource management' have represented communities as sites of consensus and sustainability. Though idealized, such representations have provided a vocabulary with which to defend the rights of communities vis-a-vis states. Poor farmers, development planners, consultants and academics can also use representations of community strategically to achieve positive effects, or at least to mitigate negative ones. Most, but not all, of the illustrations in this article are drawn from Indonesia, with special reference to Central Sulawesi. (Econ lit)

Lohmann, L (1995). Visitors to the commons: approaching Thailand's 'environmental' struggles from a Western starting point. in Ecological Resistance Movements: The Global Emergence of Radical and Popular Environmentalism. BR Taylor, Ed. Albany, SUNY Press.

Lynch, O and J Alcorn (1994). Tenurial rights and community-based conservation. in Natural Connections: Perspectives in Community-based Conservation. D Western and RM Wright, Ed. Washington DC, Island Press.

Rice, D (1992). Land security, self sufficiency and cultural integrity in the Philippines. in The Rainforest Harvest. S Counsell and T Rice, Ed. London, Friends of the Earth Trust.

MARINE/FISHERIES:

Backhaus, N (1998). Globalisation and marine resource use in Bali. in Environmental Challenges in South-East Asia. VT King, Ed. Surrey, UK, Curzon Press.

Bailey, C and C Zerner (1992). “Community-based fisheries management institutions in Indonesia.” Mast 5(1): 1-17.

Feerer, EM (1996). Seeds of Hope: A Collection of Case Studies on Community-based Coastal Resources Management in the Philippines. Quezon City, Baron Multimedia.

Flaherty, M and C Karnjanakesorn (1995). “Marine shrimp aquaculture and natural-resource degradation in Thailand.” Environmental Management 19(1): 27-37.

Rising demand for shrimp in the developed nations has helped to foster a dramatic growth in marine shrimp aquaculture, particularly in South America and South Asia. In Thailand, marine shrimp aquaculture is now an important earner of foreign exchange. The growth in production has been achieved through the expansion of the culture area and the adoption of intensive production methods. The conversion of near-shore areas to shrimp culture, however, is proving to have many consequences that impinge on the environmental integrity of coastal areas. This paper reviews the development of Thailand's marine shrimp culture industry and examines the nature of the environmental impacts that are emerging. It then. discusses the implications these have for rural poor and the long-term viability of the culture industry. (Journal)

Flaherty, M and P Vandergeest (1998). “"Low-salt" shrimp aquaculture in Thailand: goodbye coastline, hello Khon Kaen!” Environmental Management 22(6): 817-830.

Intensive shrimp culture has been confined to relatively narrow bands of land along the seashores of tropical developing nations due to the need for large volumes of saltwater for water exchange during the culture period. Recent developments in Thailand suggest, however, that this close association could soon be a thing of the past. Large numbers of Thai farmers are adopting low-salinityculture systems that rely upon sea or salt pan water that is trucked inland. This development greatly increases the potential for establishing shrimp cultivation much further from the coast than previously believed possible. The migration of intensive shrimp farming into freshwater environments, however, raises serious concerns over the disposal of pond effluents and the impact of saltwater intrusion on surrounding agricultural activities. In the absence of effective government regulation of the expansion and operation of the shrimp culture industry, supporting local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and community initiatives may be the only means of minimizing the negative impacts of shrimp farming on rural communities. (SSCI)

Hogan, Z (1998). “Aquatic conservation zones: community management of rivers and fisheries.” Watershed 3(2): 29-36.

Nikijuluw, V (1994). “Indigenous fisheries resource management in the Maluku Islands.” Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor 2(2).

Pannell, S (1997). “Managing the discourse of resource management: the case of sasi from southeast Maluku, Indonesia.” Oceania 67: 289-307.

Co-management of protected areas and renewable resources, with its focus upon local community involvement, is often proposed as some form of "magic cure" for environmental ailments and social injustices. Notwithstanding the inherent romanticism of some of the proponents of management from "the bottom up," there is a strong tendency to view this approach in overly utilitarian, ahistorical and often essentialist terms. In the process, the cultural, historical and political specificities and effects of this discourse are either neutralised or totally disregarded. While a number of authors have identified some of the limitations and problems associated with the implementation of community based, co management programmes, there is still a general reluctance to question the logic which informs and is constitutive of this discourse. In this paper, I explore the discourse of resource management in relation to the varied practices and perceptions associated with and identified as sasi. This discussion of sasi focuses upon the island of Luang, and the 1800 or so people who inhabit this island located in the southern waters of the Banda sea. The environmental and economic circumstances of Luang make it an ideal context for the investigation of "community based, marine resource management" strategies. However, while this context seems to comply with some of the truths produced by the discourse of resource management, in this paper I argue that the very canons of this discourse are placed at risk through people's enactment of their own projects and the expression of their own representations. (Source)

Zerner, C (1994). “Through a green lens: the construction of customary environmental law and community in Indonesia's Maluku Islands.” Law & Society Review 28(5): 1079-1122.

In the Maluku Islands of Eastern Indonesia, a center of global diversity in coral reef systems and the historic center of trade in cloves and other spices, tenure practices known as sasi have flourished for at least a century. This article analyzes changes in the ways Dutch colonial officials, Indonesian government officials, and environmental NGOs have interpreted Moluccan customary law and local institutions. Dutch colonial accounts of sasi, a generic name for a historic family of institutions, laws, and ritual practices that regulated access to fields, reefs, and rivers, suggest that sasi was a synthetic, highly variable body of practices linked to religious beliefs and local cultural ideas of nature. During the past two decades, as international and national conservation discourses have proliferated and a movement has developed to support indigenous Indonesian cultural communities, Indonesian NGOs and the Ministry of the Environment have promoted, and largely created, images of sasi as an environmental institution and body of customary law promoting sustainable development, conservation, and social equity. This article focuses on how sasi has been continuously reinterpreted by a variety of actors, following the trajectory of changing institutional interests and images. (Author)

Zerner, C (1994). Transforming customary law and coastal management practices in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia 1870-1992. in Natural Connections: Perspectives in Community-based Conservation. D Western and RM Wright, Ed. Washington DC, Island Press.

MOUNTAIN:

Dearden, P, S Chettamart, et al. (1996). “National parks and hill tribes in Northern Thailand: a case study of Doi Inthanon.” Society and Natural Resources 9(2): 125-141.

Doedens, A, G Persoon, et al. (1995). “The relevance of ethnicity in the depletion and management of forest resources in Northeast Luzon, Philippines.” Sojourn 10(2): 259-279.

Forsyth, T (1996). “Science, myth and knowledge: testing Himalayan environmental degradation in Thailand.” Geoforum 27(3): 375- 392.

This paper examines recent debate concerning the concepts of 'sustainable knowledge' and 'hybridity' in environmental research. Hybrid studies employ local, indigenous knowledge alongside global, scientific techniques to achieve guidelines for sustainable development. The paper discusses the value of indigenous knowledge in testing theories of environmental degradation, and the problems of overcoming socio-political constructions of environmental problems over wide time and space scales, as identified by Regional Political Ecology. The paper focuses on the so-called theory of Himalayan environmental degradation and illustrates the study with a case from northern Thailand. In Thailand, upland shifting cultivators are blamed for causing lowland sedimentation and water shortages, and have been considered by lowland communities to lack awareness of environmental degradation. The study used indigenous knowledge alongside GIS analysis and the Caesium-137 technique for measuring soil erosion to test the assumptions that land shortage has increased cultivation on steeper slopes, and that erosion is a problem for upland degradation. This is the first time these new techniques have been used in testing assumptions related to Himalayan degradation. Results indicated that upland farmers deliberately avoid erosion by increasing frequency of cultivation of flatter slopes rather than steeper slopes, and consequently the problem of erosion is overstated. However, this does not imply that their local knowledge is useful over larger areas, but instead shows the adaptability of local communities and their awareness of environmental risk. It is therefore argued that developing effective management techniques depends on differentiating more clearly between locally-based knowledge about environmental processes; politically-constructed statements about the environmental impacts of other groups; and falsifiable scientific assertions aiming to develop effective management techniques with reference to several communities. Copyright (C) 1996, Elsevier Science Ltd

Forsyth, T ( 1998). “Mountain myths revisited: Integrating natural and social environmental science.” Mountain Research and Development 18(2): 107-116.

This paper introduces a special edition of Mountain Research and Development on integrating natural and social environmental science. In recent years, environment and development research has been rocked by discovering that so-called problems, such as Himalayan environmental degradation, or desertification, are not the problems researchers once thought. However, labeling these models as 'myths' is problematic because myths may either mean a demonstrably false statement or a socially constructed repository of local wisdom. This paper, and those following, present ways to combine both meanings of myth by integrating social and natural science, thus allowing critical debate about biophysical processes at the same time as acknowledging social constructions of environment. As such, this forms part of a growing trend towards adopting Cultural Theory the 'new' ecologies, and critical realism in environmental research, all of which provide alternatives to positivism or post-modern deconstruction of environmental discourse. Such research included adopting typologies of environmental perception, long-term environmental histories, 'hybrid' research combining social and natural science, and building local institutional capacity for integrating different environmental knowledge. It is argued that integrating natural and social environmental science is essential in order to avoid accepting environmental 'myths' uncritically, yet also to provide an epistemologically realist basis to local development. (Journal)

Ganjanapan, A (1996). The politics of environment in northern Thailand: ethnicity and highland development programs. in Seeing Forests for Trees: Environment and Environmentalism in Thailand. P Hirsch, Ed. Bangkok, Silkworm Books.

Ganjanapan, A (1998). “The politics of conservation and the complexity of local control of forests in the northern Thai highlands.” Mountain Research & Development. 18(1): 71-82.

This paper argues that conflicts in the northern Thai highlands are a clear case of the politics of environmental discourse in the sense that conservation has played a role in lending legitimacy to both government agencies and ethnic communities in their struggle for the control of forest resources. Underlying such conflicts is the official line of negative thinking about ethnic minorities in the hills by associating them with various vices, namely as enemies of the forest, opium producers, and a threat to national security. The government agencies always cite ethnicity against a role in conservation, which keeps them from appreciating ethnic-specific knowledge in the management of the forest. Shifting cultivation has been distorted for having only a negative impact on the environment, disregarding the realities found in local practices which are varied, complex, adaptive, and quite dynamic in many cases. The ethnic minorities, on the other hand, keep raising the issues of community rights in relation to their role in the protection of the forest. Rarely are their voices recognized until serious conflict occurs, which can be seen particularly in cases of the eviction of minorities from conservation forests. Only recently have government agencies begun to show some positive concern over the social issues of rights, as seen in the official pilot project on community forestry and the drafting of the community forest act. However, there is still no serious discussion of legal recognition of minorities' rights to live in the forest. (SSCI)

Ives, J (1994). “Effects of development on rural poverty, minority peoples, and the mountain environment, northern Yunnan province, China: a new field research project.” Mountain Research and Development 14(2): 181-184.

Rerkasem, K and B Rerkasem (1995). “Montane mainland South-east Asia: agroecosystems in transition.” Global Environmental Change-Human And Policy Dimensions 5(4): 313-322.

The mountainous regions of mainland South-East Asia have been a classic ground both for the study of shifting agriculture systems, and for their condemnation. National policy in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and China has all been based on the belief that traditional practices of shifting agriculture are wasteful and destructive. Development policy is carried out on the assumption that certain land use practices, such as planting rubber in South-Western China and fruit trees in northern Thailand, building terraces and planting contour vegetative strips, or conversion of flat land into paddies for wetland rice are the basis for sustainable land use. Under certain conditions, however, these and similar solutions may actually lead to more problems than they solve. In this paper we use the agroecosystem as a framework of analysis, and suggest that changes affecting elements within an agroecosystem can render the entire system unsustainable. We pay attention particularly to the growth of the human population, to increasing commercialization, to efforts made to find substitutes for opium as a cash crop, and to the rapidly emerging consequences of transborder trade in the region. Our report is based on recent studies in Thailand and Laos. (Authors)

Tungittiplakorn, W (1995). “Highland-lowland conflict over natural resources: a case of Mae-soi, Chiang Mai, Thailand.” Society and Natural Resources 8(4): 279-288.

The ongoing conflict between the Hmong highlanders and the ethnic Thai lowlanders over the Mae Soi watershed of Chiang Mai in northern Thailand is explored. The study shows that highlanders and lowlanders have asymmetrical perceptions of the conflict and its solutions. Lowlanders perceive the conflict as mainly environmental, ie., highlanders reduce the water quantity and quality. Highlanders indicated more diverse social, political, and economic factors as the cause of the conflict It is inconclusive, however, that the conflict originated from the environmental issue. (Source)

PROTECTED AREA:

Bagarinao, T (1998). “Nature parks, museums, gardens, and zoos for biodiversity conservation and environment education: the Philippines.” Ambio 27(3): 230-237.

Berkmuller, K (1984). “Education and recreation at Hwlaga - Burma's first step in protected area education.” Environmental Conservation 11(4): 354-357.

Dearden, P, S Chettamart, et al. (1996). “National parks and hill tribes in Northern Thailand: A case study of Doi Inthanon.” Society and Natural Resources 9(2): 125-141.

Dearden, P, S Chettamart, et al. (1998). “Protected areas and property rights in Thailand: comment.” Environmental Conservation 25(3): 195-197.

Ghimire, KB (1994). “Parks and people: livelihood issues in national parks management in Thailand and Madagascar.” Development and Change 25: 195-229.

In many countries, the transformation by the state of increasing areas of land and aquatic resources into strictly protected areas has included a total restriction on the use of park resources by the local people, causing poverty and social conflict, and in some cases

further environmental deterioration. This essay examines the forms of management in national parks in developing countries in general, and in Thailand and Madagascar in particular. (SSCI)

Hitchcock, M and S Jay (1998). Eco-tourism and environmental change in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. in Environmental Challenges in South-East Asia. VT King, Ed. Surrey, UK, Curzon Press.

Horowitz, L (1998). “Integrating indigenous resource management with wildlife conservation: a case study of Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia.” Human Ecology 26(3): 371-403.

This paper examines the indigenous land and forest management systems of the community of seven Iban longhouses whose territories comprise the area of Batang Ai National Park in Sarawak, Malaysia. It also discusses the integrated conservation and development program (ICDP) at the park. This project is attempting to work within the existing system of customary law to build on traditional legislative infrastructure and management practices, in order to enlist the cooperation of local people and their leaders in implementing a new conservation strategy. In addition to reinforcing local authority park planners recognize the need for local people to be given strong incentives to participate in co-management of the protected area. This paper argues that despite a history of conflict with indigenous peoples, State officials have in this instance demonstrated a willingness to work with local people and community leaders. At the same time, they are encouraging community development, helping people to find alternatives to activities that threaten the park's wildlife. (Source)

Hvenegaard, G and P Dearden (1998). “Ecotourism versus tourism in a Thai National Park.” Annals of Tourism Research 25(3): 700-720.

Although considered distinct, ecotourists have been compared rarely with other tourist types at the same site and time. Moreover, ecotourism definitions imply support for conservation. This study differentiates ecotourists from other tourist types, and compares their financial support for conservation, sociodemographic characteristics, and recreation substitutability for nature trek activities. Based on a questionnaire survey of 857 respondents at Doi Inthanon National Park, Thailand, five main tourist types were identified. Ecotourists contributed more to conservation than other types, but primarily in their home countries. They were older and more educated than other tourist types. Substitutability did not differ among different types. (Journal)

MacAndrews, C (1998). “ Improving the management of Indonesia's national parks: lessons from two case studies.” Bulletin Of Indonesian Economic Studies 34(1): 121- 137.

Although Indonesia has placed a considerable percentage of its land and coastal areas under protection, it has to date failed to provide adequate management, particularly of its national parks. This is due to a number of factors, both organisational and financial. Using studies of recent attempts to introduce more effective management in two major Indonesian national parks, this article looks at what kinds of changes are needed to strengthen the present park management system. (Author)

Siebert, SF (1995). “ Prospects for sustained-yield harvesting of rattan (Calamus spp.) in two Indonesian national parks.” Society and Natural Resources 8(3): 209-218.

Vandergeest, P (1996). “Property rights in protected areas: Oobstacles to community involvement as a solution in Thailand.” Environmental Conservation 23(3): 259-268.

Conflicts between local people and managers of protected areas (PAs) have often undermined conservation goals in Asia. Since the 1970s, conservation planners have tried to address these problems by incorporating rural development into PA planning. More recently, many conservationists have argued for increasing community involvement in PA management, and for allowing traditional resource uses inside PAs. Based on research in Thailand I make three arguments regarding obstacles to implementing the new approach. In Thailand, laws governing Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks enacted in the early 1960s were premised on the idea that human use and nature preservation were incompatible. Rapid expansion of these PAs in recent years has produced endemic conflict with rural people claiming resources inside PAs. To address this problem, the Thai Royal Forestry Department has cooperated with NGOs providing development assistance to rural people living in buffer zones outside of some PAs. I argue that this approach has met limited success because the main source of conflict is not poverty but claims on resources inside PAs. The second argument is that the Forestry Department has resisted changes to laws making local use inside PAs illegal because these laws are important for consolidating the Department's control over territory and in justifying increasing budgetary allocations. In addition, by redefining itself as an organization devoted to strict defence of forests, the Department has obtained the support of many urban environmentalists. The third argument is that the community forest approach taken by a recent draft Community Forest Bill is an important first step in that it implicitly recognizes community property. At the same time, this approach will also fail to address key problems because it is based on a notion of the traditional village, and does not allow for the commercial nature of rural forest use or the household-based nature of forest tenure. I suggest that the new expansion of PAs be halted, that land claimed by rural households be taken out of PAs, and that the government recognize community management rights in areas that remain classified as protected. More generally, the goals of conservation would be better achieved by replacing an approach based on the rapid expansion of PAs with one promoting conservation outside Pas. (Source)

WILDLIFE:

Horowitz, L (1998). “Integrating indigenous resource management with wildlife conservation: a case study of Batang Ai National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia.” Human Ecology 26(3): 371-403.

Wadley, RL, CJP Colfer, et al. (1997). “Hunting primates and managing forests: the case of Iban forest farmers in Indonesian Borneo.” Human Ecology 25(2): 243-271.

Hunting by Iban forest farmers in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, is an important part of their subsistence economy, and as such became a focus of study as part of a conservation project in the Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve. In this paper we examine Iban hunting of nonhuman primates with comparison to other large mammals. We analyze rates of encounter and capture, comparing encounters, hunting trips, and animal numbers. information on habitats hunted shows the importance of secondary and old growth forest. Also examined are Iban attitudes game preferences, and taboos. The significance of these findings is discussed with regard to the threats to wildlife from increases in the use of shotguns, human population, and habitat destruction showing that conservation may be aided by promoting or enhancing certain aspects of the traditional Iban agroforestry system. (Journal)

Whiteman, A and J Aglionby (1997). “The utilization of socio-economic data for conservation management planning: a case study from Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.” Commonwealth Forestry Review 76(4): 239-245.

This paper presents the results of several surveys used to collect socio-economic data and discusses how these data were used to appraise different conservation management options in Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve. The analysis suggests that current resource extraction levels are probably unsustainable and that growth in resource extraction will lead to a significant deterioration in the conservation value of the reserve. Three management options were appraised: one to increase value-added to resources and develop locally enforced harvesting limits; a second to provide incentives for some individuals to shift to other economic activities in addition to the above; and a third to attempt to persuade all the communities to move outside the reserve. It is recommended that the first option should be implemented, but that opportunities to develop alternative sources of income, preferably outside the reserve, should also be investigated further. (Author)