The Image
of Paul Robeson: Role Model for the Student and Athlete
By: C.
Keith Harrison, Ed.D., Kinesiology, University of Michigan
Brian
Lampman, M.A.
Social
Sciences
Eastern
Michigan University
Research
for this paper was supported by the Paul Robeson Research Center for Academic
and Athletic Prowess in the Division of Kinesiology in Ann Arbor, Michigan, the
Associate Provost for Academic Affairs, the Office of the Vice President for
Resear, ch and the Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies Distinguished
Faculty Seminar, and the International Sport Science Congress/International
Seminar for the Philosophy of Sport and Dance in Seoul, Korea. Both invited
Harrison to present research on sport in American Higher Education and a case
study paper on Paul Robeson in relation to the conference theme: Exploring the
Value of Movement Philosophy.
ABSTRACT
This
paper examines the life of Paul Robeson as a scholar-athlete, law student, and
professional football player. The themes of Robeson as an ultimate image of
labor and leisure will be linked to the contemporary paradigm in education,
race and sports. This context of youth (especially black male youth) and their
career aspirations will intersect with popular culture, representation and
intercollegiate athletics. It will be argued in this paper that Paul Robeson
was exemplary of the benefits of a well-rounded and balanced life of academics
and athletics. Today, the paradigm of the black athletic hero is one of
material consumption and scholar-athleticism is limited in media
representations, as well as institutionally neglected contemporary
intercollegiate structure.
Key
Terms: Scholar-baller, popular culture, balance, academics, intercollegiate
athletics and representation.
This
paper is in preparation for Rethinking History, the special issue �Labor
and Leisure in Everyday Lives� as edited by Barbara Tischler and Linda Borish.
�When
the lies and myths supporting the �house-of-cards� social and political
structures known as American society are finally erased and when, among other
things, the whole story is told about the athletes who really lived up to the
ideals of sports, there is little doubt in my mind that the name and deeds of
Paul Robeson will figure prominently in that chapter of post-Babylon history.�
(Edwards, 1971).
The
image of Robeson as a scholar-athlete is relevant to an analysis of
contemporary sports and society. Robeson is a role model for the student and
athlete, as his work ethic in the classroom and sporting venues represent the
true value of sport (Harrison 1996, 1998). Robeson�s legacy should influence
K-12 curricula in social science, history, and physical education. Three
critical questions emerge in any analysis of Robeson as a dominate figure in
the American twentieth century: (1) What is the legacy of Paul Robeson as a
scholar-athlete? (2) How does the triad of athletics, gender and race
represented in Robeson�s career, illuminate a discussion of contemporary race
relations? (3) How is the image of Paul Robeson as both a stellar student and
athlete a viable case study that raises critical analytical questions regarding
the status of intercollegiate athletics in the twenty-first century?
����������� In today�s society, the term
�student-athlete� has a different meaning than it did 80 years ago (Harris
1998). As a result of ambivalence or even confusion about the role of academic
rigor in the lives of competitive players, collegiate athletes sometimes are
permitted by those in the university power structure who benefit from this prowess
to take any courses that they wish to keep their athletic eligibility. Paul
Robeson defined the true meaning of �student-athlete� with his commitment to
education and sport. As a young boy, William Robeson (Paul�s father) instilled
in him the virtues of hard work and the attainment of knowledge. Paul�s father
was constructing a �scholar-baller�, a term used to describe an individual who
possesses academic and athletic prowess. Salient qualities of the
�scholar-baller� include a willingness to accept the challenge of balancing
academics and athletics, the tenacity never to give up when faced with social
obstacles, and a commitment to lifelong learning and intellectual development
of the mind and body. The �scholar-baller� is also accepted in both the stereotypical
nerd and jock worlds (smart and cool respectively).
����������� By scoring high marks on the
statewide test in New Jersey, Robeson capped off a high school career as an
outstanding athlete, scholar and orator at Somerville High School. What is even
more amazing about Robeson�s achievement is that the extraordinary effort he
had to make in preparing for the examination. The first part of the test,
covering the first three years of high school work, had been held the previous
year; but somehow had not known about it then. Consequently, as he recalled, �I
was faced with an examination embracing the entire four-year course, in the
same three-hour period during which the other competitors would only cover
their senior year�s work�. Despite this handicap (Robeson was modest about the
disadvantage that challenged him), Robeson passed the examination with the
highest average ever achieved in the competition (Edwards 1971). This allowed
him to attend Rutgers University on a full academic scholarship.
����������� While Robeson would become one of
Rutgers prize recruits, he was not embraced by his teammates (indeed, he was
beaten up his first day of practice). His brother and father encouraged him to
persevere, as thousands of other black men would never get the opportunity he
was experiencing if he were to quit. Duberman (1989:20) captures the quote in
his biography of Robeson, �When I was out on a football field, or in a
classroom, or anywhere else, I was not there just on my own. I was the
representative of a lot of Negro boys who wanted to play football, and wanted
to go to college, and, as their representative, I had to show I could take
whatever was handed out�. See Figure 1.
�
Using the
system
Paul
Robeson�s life and career are paradigms of resistance to racial stereotyping.
The image of the black athlete with a powerful intellect merits further
consideration.
In the exhibit publication Paul Robeson: Artist
and Citizen, Deborah Willis in her chapter "The Image and Paul
Robeson� raises some pertinent questions while deconstructing the popular image
of Robeson holding a football: Are these athletic images the beginning of the
visual construction of Robeson for consumption by white America? To what extent
did Robeson believe in the construction of his All-American athletic persona
and to what extent did he control these images? Harris is no doubt illuminating
the dilemma of representation, masculinity, autonomy, and the black presence
(Edwards, 1971).
Robeson was a standout athletically, lettering in
four sports and earning distinction as a two-time Walter Camp first team
All-American in football. He was also a member of the Cap and Skull Society,
Phi-Beta Kappa, Philocean society, Mathematics Club, and the champion each of
his four years of the Debate Team. The primary image of his athletic prowess
and the perception of his peers are best articulated in his senior yearbook:
�Paul LeRoy Robeson
All hats off to the Robie men;
All honor to his name;
On the diamond court or football field
He�s brought old Rutgers fame�
(1918 yearbook)
The
omission of Robeson�s intellectual achievements is not necessarily a racial
slight, but is rather a historical neglect of the value of education when
connected to athletic individuals. Robeson�s legacy is important; both as a
thinker and as a sportsman, but analysis in this context of Robeson�s life
reveals fewer than twenty scholarly papers (published or unpublished) and only
one book by Lloyd Brown examining the young Robeson. Martin Duberman has
written the most extensive biography on the entire life of Paul Robeson, with
one chapter called �Rutgers College� focusing on the socialization of Robeson
in an overly racist academia. Robeson paved the way for thousands of African
American students and student-athletes to experience higher education (not only
at Rutgers, but traditionally White campuses around the country). This was only
a reality through his perseverance and manifestation of his father�s wishes to
stand his ground (literally and figuratively).
Paul Robeson endured both personal and broader
cultural struggles while an athlete at Rutgers University. His triumphs serve
as a testament to the courage, perseverance and dignity that Robeson modeled
each day of his life. Our nation�s rich history has provided us with many men
and women who have served as torchbearers for change and accomplishment. Yet
there have been few that have done so in such a multi-talented way that Robeson
did academically, athletically, and socially. Therefore, in many ways, he
serves as the ideal model, particularly for children.
Robeson was much like many early black pioneers
involved in school and intercollegiate athletics�they all used sport as a means
to an end. Robeson best illustrated this concept while playing professional
football for Akron, Indiana and Milwaukee. His earnings went towards his
education at Columbia Law School. He used the system, rather than allowing the
system to drain physical talents of the short-term hyper-athletic body
manifestation in sport.
Robeson kept his ethnic and cultural ties and was recognized
by WEB DuBois in The Crisis for his academic and athletic achievements. Robeson
played basketball for the St. Christopher Club, which was sponsored by a church
in Harlem. He was well recognized and praised by the black community in New
York during his scholar-athlete days. His circle of friends included some of
the most respected and distinguished African Americans during that period of
time. These peers included Rudolph Fisher, Gwendolyn Bennett, Countee Cullen,
Langston Hughes, Aaron Douglas, E. Franklin Frazier, Charles Johnson, William
L. Patterson and Hubert T. Delany. Paul concluded his eclectic undergraduate
days by extending to the black middle class at the Carlton YMCA in Brooklyn,
where the program 'Four Negro Commencement Speakers' was presented. Paul was
balancing not only academics and athletics, but the black and white worlds!
(Edwards, 1971).
Robeson set a standard of excellence for all to follow. He would not
accept the narrowly defined position for African-Americans in society created
by whites. Instead, he fought for progress every step of the way.
MEANING
FOR THE 21ST CENTURY
Studies
by Janet Harris (1994) and James Comer and Alvin Pouissant (1992) demonstrate
the powerful influence that athletes have on youths. Disturbing though, is the
alarming number of examples where contemporary athletes embody what is wrong
with our society. All too often, children mimic the behavior of their heroes.
Greed, lawlessness and an unwillingness to take responsibility permeate
professional sports. The media in favor of sensational stories regarding
athletes and their run-ins with the law often overlooks honorable deeds. In
contrast to this negativity, Paul Robeson stands as a pillar of dignity and a
positive role model for young adults to see the contributions that athletes
have made and continue to make.
Lampman teaches eighth grade history, which
incorporates curriculum ranging from the Revolution to Reconstruction period of
American history at Saline Middle School in Saline, MI. He has created a 12-week
course entitled Changing Time Issues: How Athletes and Athletic Events have
Impacted Social Change in the 20th Century. In this course, his
students examine the social ramifications of events on the playing field.
Lampman�s course examines athletic heroism and the social barriers that it
helped to erode, analyzing such notable athletes as Jack Johnson, the first
black heavyweight world champion, and Babe Didrickson, Jesse Owens, Joe Louis,
the Negro Leagues, the Women�s Professional Baseball Leagues, Jackie Robinson,
Wilma Rudolph, Muhammad Ali, Billie Jean King and Title IX. Contemporary issues
in athletics are also addressed once students acquire a strong historical
foundation and appreciation between the union of sport and social change.
Athletes of color and women are the primary focus because of the long history
of discrimination that they have endured, and in many instances, continue to
endure in our country.
Historically, race has been a heated and divisive
issue in our country. Even today, one need only turn on the TV or pick up a
newspaper to see examples of ignorance, bigotry and intolerance. In an effort
to explain when and how this hatred begins, social scientists have developed an
explanation known as the 'sandbox theory.' They argue that young children of
different races placed in a sandbox together will harbor no resentment toward
one another. Only when they are influenced by outside forces such as friends,
parents, television and the media are their views on race distorted. While
these young children in the sandbox may fight over the best toys, they would
not quibble about building a sandcastle next to a child whose skin color was a
different shade. Racism and intolerance are traits that no child is born with.
They are learned traits, traits that are acquired at a very young age. This is
why it is so imperative for children to be exposed to the heroes in the
struggle for equality such as Robeson. Many children identify with athletes;
Robeson teaches the necessity in our culture for tolerance and understanding.
Furthermore, he illustrates the power that athletes have to exert positive
influences through their unique position in society.
The mass media and its damaging and negative
messages directly influence children in our society. Music videos commonly
portray women as objects of sexual gratification or sexual promiscuity, victims
of abusive relationships, or flighty professionals, while African-American men
are often portrayed as athletes or gun-totting rappers, consumed with the
pursuit of the almighty dollar. In many predominately white Michigan schools,
few opportunities exist for students to have positive interactions with members
of diverse groups. However, the opportunity to see negative images of
minorities in mass media is quite common. This, in turn, has a stigmatizing
impact.
Robeson serves as a beacon for students to
appreciate diversity and the importance of his accomplishments serves as a
theme for our youth. He was a man who completely shattered and rebuilt the
image of the African-American male. Robeson�s numerous athletic achievements,
which included varsity letters, in four different sports and All-American
honors, is a powerful positive model for student�s experience. However, both
Harrison and Lampman stress the importance of recognizing an African-American
man�s academic accomplishments. All too often the 'dumb minority jock image' is
reinforced by the media and the message hits home with our youth. Robeson
earned Phi Beta Kappa honors, was a member of student council and a literacy
society on campus, excelled on the debate team and was active in the community
to promote black achievement and pride. He was a Renaissance man at the time
when the role of the African-American was clearly established as that of a
second-class citizen. During his years at Rutgers and later in numerous
theatrical productions he vowed to fight racism, and like W.E.B. Dubois, he
worked to uplift African-Americans through his accomplishments. In our current
age of shameless self-promotion on the part of many athletes, Robeson modeled
selfless acts. This is no more apparent in his willingness to sacrifice his own
career to further the achievements of the black race.
Lampman challenges his students to make connections
between Robeson and other athletes in the 20th century. Some see
comparisons in the exploits of Jesse Owens, Jackie Robinson, Muhammad Ali,
Arthur Ashe and Tiger Woods and even Dhani Jones and Drew Henson, two current
University of Michigan football players. However, some students come to the
conclusion that while all of these athletes are tremendously important, none
could boast of the lifetime of accomplishments serving their race like Robeson
did. Athletes like Robeson serve as tangible teaching models that are so
important to our youth. Robeson�s omission from history texts is a travesty;
one that must be rectified. His life as a true Renaissance man must be
celebrated. However, perhaps what is more important is that teaching values
begins at an early age so that our youth grow with the understanding, tolerance
and acceptance that Robeson preached and practiced throughout his life.
According to Duberman (1989), Robeson clearly embraced the idea of being a
'credit to his race.' The fact that Robeson returned after graduation to speak
in Whitman�s contemporary drama class affirms his acceptance of being black in
America and modeling achievement, class and respect.
ROLE MODEL
FOR ALL ATHLETES?
Todd
Crosset in a session at the North American Society for the Sociology of Sport,
presented �Role Models: A Critical Assessment of the Application of the Term to
Athletes.� Specifically, Crosset examines the hypocritical label
disproportionately applied to women and to African American athletes (Edwards,
1971).
Crosset�s heading �The Role Model as a Credit to His
Race� links what Dr. Charles Whitman (an English professor at Rutgers, who took
Robeson to see plays by William Shakespeare) encouraged the young Robeson to
become a role model for the people of his own race (Duberman, 1989). This
concept however, is problematic as Crosset (1998) indicates: 'Few worry if a
white athlete�s negative actions will effect young children. Do black athletes
owe more to the community than white athletes? Do black athletes make better
role models? Probably not' (Crosset, 1998). Shropshire (1996) has suggested
that 'role model' is a racially coded term.
David Wiggins (1991) meshes the timeless philosophy
and contradiction of sport in higher education in the essay 'Prized Performers,
but Frequently Overlooked Students: the Involvement of Black Athletes in
Intercollegiate Sports on Predominantly White University Campuses, 1890-1972.'
Wiggins provides the views of both the conservative and critical lens:
Some individuals might argue black athletes are
provided with opportunities they never could have experienced unless they had
been chosen to participate in intercollegiate sport. Black college athletes do
travel to exciting places, come in contact with influential people with and
outside the university community, and are showered with attention unknown to
the vast majority of college students. Unfortunately, these experiences do not
necessarily translate into successful professional careers and upward social
mobility. The sad fact is, short of abolishing college athletics altogether,
there seems little chance of finding large numbers if black scholars, and white
scholars for that matter, to grace playing fields in the manner of yesterday�s
heroes like William Henry Lewis (first African American All-American in
football), Howard Drew (track star), and Paul Robeson (Phi-Beta Kappa scholar).
Although black athletes enjoyed a few moments as prized performers in
prestigious universities down through the years, the rest of their lives have
frequently held out little promise because they bought into a system that
overlooked them as students
(Wiggins 1991: 175)
It
is important to examine the stellar example that Robeson offered as a model of
the positive possibilities of celebrity, activism, and advocacy. It must be an
activism infused with a faith, much like Robeson�s, in the whole people, the
emergence into full bloom of the last estate, the vision of no high and low, no
superior and inferior�but equals, assigned to different tasks in the building
of a new and richer human society (Malveaux, 1998).
The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
published a feature article on the Centennial of Robeson, citing him as a model
athlete. This leaves us suspicious, when one considers the blatant racism
Robeson faced. The implications of him as a role model threatens a similar
structure of intercollegiate athletics today. As Wiggins (1991) aforementioned,
athletic scholarships and are not provided for student-athletes, especially
African-Americans from low-income families, to become scholar-ballers. If the
model of Paul Robeson were realized we would see movies that showed black
athletes saying 'Show me the knowledge' rather than 'Show me the money.' The
popular culture phrase 'It�s all about the Benjamins baby' might be represented
as 'It�s all about the cranium baby.' Elite historian and scholar John Hope
Franklin concludes our paper best:
Paul Robeson was one of the great icons of his own
time. He was a force to be reckoned with and even his severest critics
recognized that indisputable fact. Indeed, Robeson remains a powerful icon
today. It is clear that he would urge Americans to create relationships beyond
their borders, demand that they uphold the ideals of democracy and equality,
and challenge this generation to accept this torch as we approach the next
century
(Franklin 1998: 300)
Finally,
two sport historians add strength to the case study of Paul Robeson as both and
scholar and an athlete. Smith (1979) addresses the role model construct of
black athletes in his article �The Paul Robeson�Jackie Robinson Saga and a
Political Collision,� by analyzing the tension in various communities and power
structures. Opinions expressed by blacks were not consistent and there was a
negative climate around Robeson�s name, a division among blacks over two of
their heroes, and a feeling of disappointment with Robinson 'selling out' in
the eyes of some (Smith, 1979). This good negro bad negro binary is present
today with the likes of Michael Jordan versus Michael Tyson, Allen Iverson
versus Tiger Woods, etc. Jeffrey Sammons (1994) affirms our case study analysis
of Robeson as an early pioneer, African American scholar and athlete:
Sport historians must not just follow and remain
behind the curve, using superficial understandings and examples of the latest
theory or approach to seem current and fluent. Sport history can lead the way
and change directions in important areas such as integration, gender, and
violence to name a few. The last two should be of particular interest to women
scholars, whose association with sport history has been virtually non-existent.
To take advantage of the opportunity to progress, old ways of thinking must be
shed. The framework has been laid, a rich body of material has been mined, now
is the time for taking risks, becoming adventurous. If we do not, we will only
keep talking to and among ourselves.
(Sammons 1994: 278)
This
paper attempted to demonstrate the importance of Robeson�s legacy as both a
scholar and an athlete. Considering Sammons� call for considering new directions
when considering integration and gender, Paul Robeson leaves us with several
thoughts to consider in terms of the broader social context. One might infer
that Robeson�s political actions began as he fought for respect on and off the
field at Rutgers University. This identity would grow as Robeson matured
throughout his life. This identity also complimented (conservative) and
contradicted (radical) prior feelings from his valedictorian speech, The New
Idealism from The Daily Targum: 'We know that neither institutions nor friends
can make a race stand unless it has strength in its own foundation; that races
like individuals must stand or fall by their own merit; that to fully succeed
they must practice their virtues of self-reliance, self-respect, industry,
perseverance and economy� (p. 571) Robeson would later be demonized because of
his support of communist ideology, and his artistic talents in the music and
drama industry were stunted by this action. The context of today's African
American male student-athlete and professional athlete has no idea of the overt
racism Robeson faced. It should be noted that Robeson traveled the world and
embraced other cultures not only because of his humanistic qualities, but also
because of the various countries' ideologies and embracing of his masculinity
and vision. Today�s African American athlete is rarely political because of
people like Robeson bringing down the barriers and walls of simple
access�access to a few sports is more than a reality for the African American
male athlete. This presents a problem when only half of Robeson�s image is
modeled (the athlete). As Wiggins articulated previously, there are some
benefits to the athletic experience with minimal development intellectually.
Robeson�s human agency in the 21st
Century continues to be political and challenges the overt and covert forms of
racism in sports: academic fraud; exploitation; discrimination; and stereotypes
to name a few. Most of today�s 'ballers' do not challenge these ills because
the political landscape and ecology of the student-athlete experience is less
physically volatile and economically profitable (for a selected few). The
battle in the 21st Century will be fought more in the classroom and
in the textbooks than on the field. Robeson is the ultimate gauge for any
student-athlete, male or female, black, white or brown. Examining data by the
NCAA(1995) cited in Sellers(2000), scholars on race and sport should note the
following:
The problem of the relatively poor performance of
African American student-athletes is not one of focusing too much on athletics.
In fact, their athletic achievement may actually have provided them with an
educational opportunity that would not have otherwise existed if they were not
athletes. This is witnessed by the fact that roughly 1 out of 9 African
American males on Division I campuses are scholarship athletes, as compared to
a ratio of 1 out of 50 for White Males(NCAA, 1995). In reality, the African
American student-athlete is the only connection between the post-secondary
school system and the problems of the inner-city educational system.
(200: 146)
Sellers
also cautions researchers to understand that African American student-athletes
are a heterogeneous group. A multitude of variables should be studied and documented
in the literature of sport sociology, sport history and sport social
psychology. 'Thus, the postathletic career adjustment of African American
student-athletes is a topic worthy of study, in itself, without other
comparison groups to provide texture'(Sellers, 2000, p. 148). This validates
our perspective that Paul Robeson is the quintessential case study for African
American male student-athletes. However, Robeson should not be viewed as the
exception to the rule or an aberration historically. Icons such as Charles
Drew(Amherst), Jerome "Brud" Holland (Cornell), William Henry
Lewis(Amherst, Harvard) and Duke Slater(Iowa) were all 'scholar-ballers' and
early pioneers of the student-athlete experience. It was often the case that
they were the only people of color on their respective campuses-- much
different front the landscape today in American higher education. African
American student-athletes were highly selected versus the surplus of African
American males institutionally embraced in the major revenue sports of football
and basketball.
Future studies and papers such as ours, should
examine the plight of early black women scholar-athletes, other ethnic groups,
and more connection of these histories should be linked and tied to current
issues of education, race and sport. The more connection of the present to the
past, the more textual and inclusive to other disciplines (Borish, 1999;
Sammons, 1994), the richer and more stimulating sport history will be.
Acknowledgement
Earlier
versions of this paper were presented at the Great Lakes American Studies
Association at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo Michigan, March 12-14,
1999 and the Philosophy of Sport Congress meeting in Seoul, Korea, August
22-26. Special thanks to the Rutgers University Archives, John Carroll, Young
Kim, Sherrie Daniel, Phillip Hamilton, Quentin Love, Lauren Williams and
Jennifer Johnson for their assistance with this publication. We also want to
thank Bruce Kiid and Peter Donnelly at the University of Toronto for their access
to the Center for Sport Policy.
References
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Keith Harrison, Ed.D is an assistant professor at the University of Michigan,
in Ann Arbor. Harrison has published extensively on race relations and sport,
black athletic identity, and mass media images of sport. He is founder and
director of the Paul Robeson Research Center for Academic Prowess in the
Division of Kinesiology, Department of Sports Management and Communication.
Brian
Lampman teaches eighth grade American history and sport history in Saline,
Michigan. He has an undergraduate degree from the University of Michigan and a
Masters Degree from Eastern Michigan University.
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